The ideas on this site come from decades of research on relationships, feelings, stress, families and teams. This page lists the work we lean on: who did it, what they found, how sure we can be, and a link if you would like to read more. You don’t need any of this to use the site. It is here for the curious, and for anyone who wants to check our homework.
Research describes what tends to happen across many people. It can’t tell you what is true in your home, between you and the people you love. So we use it as a starting point for a kind conversation, never as a rule to win an argument with.
Nothing matches that search. Try a surname, a year, or one word like “stress”.
Fairness and the shared load
Who does what at home, the work nobody sees, and why each person often feels they do more.
Adams, J. S. (1965) Inequity in social exchange
In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 2, pp. 267–299. Academic Press · a theory or model
Founding statement of equity theory: people compare the ratio of what they put in to what they get out with someone else’s, and feel tension when the ratios differ.
Strong evidence Foundational and well supported in workplace research; more mixed in close relationships.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Covering, in three relationships (Book: Two kinds of fair) · Equality, equity and need: three kinds of fair (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it) · Equity theory (Library: Fairness and the mental load at home)
Topics: equity, fairness, work
Algoe, S. B. (2012) Find, remind, and bind: The functions of gratitude in everyday relationships
Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6(6), 455–469 · a theory or model
Sets out find-remind-and-bind theory: gratitude helps people find good relationship partners, reminds them of existing good relationships, and binds them closer, by fueling cycles of mutually responsive behavior.
Moderate evidence Theory paper drawing on diary, observational and some experimental studies.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: 16. Where this comes from (Guide: Complacency) · Pillar V: Notice the quiet incentives (borrowed from behavioral economics) (Library: The science behind the program) · Kindness and connection and the Five Pillars (Library: Kindness and connection) · Gratitude in relationships: find, remind, bind (Library: Kindness and connection) · 2. Say thank you, specifically (Guide: Turning Toward)
Topics: gratitude, appreciation
Allen, S. M., & Hawkins, A. J. (1999) Maternal gatekeeping: Mothers’ beliefs and behaviors that inhibit greater father involvement in family work
Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61(1), 199–212 · a study
Defined maternal gatekeeping along three dimensions and, in 622 dual-earner mothers, classified about one in five as gatekeepers; they did more family work each week and had less equal divisions of labor.
Moderate evidence Influential concept; later work stresses both gate-closing and gate-opening and warns against blaming mothers.
Read more → scholarsarchive.byu.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Common mix-ups, and how to fix them (Book: Two kinds of fair) · Gatekeeping: when standards keep others out (Library: Fairness and the mental load at home) · “Weaponised incompetence” and learned helplessness at home (Library: Fairness and the mental load at home) · The mental load: what the research says (Book: The work nobody sees) · The mental load: what research finds, and what it doesn’t (Book: The work nobody sees)
Topics: gatekeeping, sharing housework, parenting, gender
Carlson, D. L., Miller, A. J., Sassler, S., & Hanson, S. (2016) The gendered division of housework and couples’ sexual relationships: A reexamination
Journal of Marriage and Family, 78(4), 975–995 · a study
Using 2006 survey data, egalitarian couples had sex as often, and were as satisfied with it, as conventional couples, unlike an earlier study based on older data; couples where the man did most of the housework reported less frequent and lower-quality sex.
Moderate evidence One US sample of mostly lower- to middle-income couples with children; correlational.
Read more → scholarworks.gsu.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Housework, fairness and satisfaction (Library: Fairness and the mental load at home)
Topics: fairness, gender, sharing housework, relationships
Caruso, E. M., Epley, N., & Bazerman, M. H. (2006) The costs and benefits of undoing egocentric responsibility assessments in groups
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(5), 857–871 · a study
Group members (including academic co-authors) overstated their own share of the work; thinking about others’ contributions reduced the bias, but high contributors then felt less satisfied with the collaboration.
Moderate evidence Several experiments; shows that perspective-taking has costs as well as benefits.
Read more → anderson-review.ucla.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Why we each think we do more (Library: Fairness and the mental load at home)
Topics: egocentric bias, fairness, work, teams
Chapman, G., & White, P. (2011) The 5 Languages of Appreciation in the Workplace: Empowering Organizations by Encouraging People
Northfield Publishing (Moody) · a book
Applies the love-languages idea to work: words of affirmation, quality time, acts of service, tangible gifts and appropriate physical touch, with an assessment tool.
Early evidence Popular, very little independent testing (as the site says).
Read more → class.unt.edu
Where this shows up on the site: At work and with roommates (Guide: Love languages, in depth) · Appreciation at work: a menu, not a label (Guide) · An honest word about the evidence (Guide: Appreciation at work)
Topics: appreciation, work
Clark, M. S., & Mills, J. (1979) Interpersonal attraction in exchange and communal relationships
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(1), 12–24 · a study
Distinguished communal relationships (benefits given in response to needs) from exchange relationships (benefits given in return for benefits). When people wanted a communal relationship, being repaid in kind reduced attraction.
Strong evidence Two experiments, widely replicated distinction.
Read more → clarkrelationshiplab.yale.edu
Where this shows up on the site: What’s in your control, then and now (Book: Know yourself) · Writing it down is not keeping score (Book: The work nobody sees) · Communal and exchange relationships (Library: Fairness and the mental load at home)
Topics: fairness, scorekeeping, relationships
Coltrane, S. (2000) Research on household labor: Modeling and measuring the social embeddedness of routine family work
Journal of Marriage and Family, 62(4), 1208–1233 · a review of research
A major review of household-labor research: how gender, paid work, income and attitudes shape who does routine family work, and how the division links to perceived fairness and wellbeing.
Strong evidence Widely cited review; representative source for the “long line of studies” the site mentions.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Housework, fairness and satisfaction (Library: Fairness and the mental load at home)
Topics: sharing housework, gender, fairness, time use
Conger, R. D., Elder, G. H., Jr., and colleagues (1990) Linking economic hardship to marital quality and instability
Journal of Marriage and the Family, 52(3), 643–656 · a study
In 76 rural Midwestern couples, financial pressure lowered marital quality indirectly, by increasing hostility and reducing warmth between spouses; this became a basis for the Family Stress Model.
Moderate evidence Small, homogeneous sample; the model has since been widely tested.
Read more → jstor.org
Where this shows up on the site: What money means to us (Library: Family, money and life changes)
Topics: money, stress, couples
Daminger, A. (2019) The cognitive dimension of household labor
American Sociological Review, 84(4), 609–633 · a study
Interviews with 35 couples (70 interviews) identified four parts of household “cognitive labor”: anticipating needs, identifying options, deciding, and monitoring. Women did more of it overall, especially anticipating and monitoring; deciding was shared more equally. The work was often unseen by both partners.
Moderate evidence Rich qualitative study of a mostly college-educated sample; not population estimates.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: What counts as work: the parts nobody sees (Book: Is the split working?) · The kinds of unseen work (Book: The work nobody sees) · Disagreeing about chores (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it) · The mental load (Library: Fairness and the mental load at home) · Cognitive labor: anticipate, identify, decide, monitor (Library: Fairness and the mental load at home)
Topics: invisible work, mental load, cognitive labor, gender
Daniels, A. K. (1987) Invisible work
Social Problems, 34(5), 403–415 · a theory or model
Argued that everyday definitions of “work” leave out a great deal of effortful activity, especially unpaid domestic and volunteer work, so it goes unrecognised.
Moderate evidence A conceptual framework supported by many qualitative studies rather than a single measurable variable.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Invisible work (Library: Fairness and the mental load at home)
Topics: invisible work
Deutsch, M. (1975) Equity, equality, and need: What determines which value will be used as the basis of distributive justice?
Journal of Social Issues, 31(3), 137–149 · a theory or model
Argued that equity is only one of several justice principles, alongside equality and need, and proposed when groups favour each: equality in cooperative relationships, equity in economic ones, need in caring ones.
Moderate evidence Influential theory; research broadly supports that the chosen principle depends on context.
Read more → data.gesis.org
Where this shows up on the site: Honest research notes (Book: Two kinds of fair) · Equality, equity and need: three kinds of fair (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it)
Topics: fairness, justice, equity
Dew, J., Britt, S., & Huston, S. (2012) Examining the relationship between financial issues and divorce
Family Relations, 61(4), 615–628 · a study
In US national survey data on about 4,500 couples, financial disagreements were the strongest of the disagreement types in predicting later divorce, for both wives and husbands.
Moderate evidence Large longitudinal sample; correlational.
Read more → scholarsarchive.byu.edu
Where this shows up on the site: What money means to us (Library: Family, money and life changes) · Disagreeing about money (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it) · Money between you (Book: Two kinds of fair)
Topics: money, conflict, divorce
di Leonardo, M. (1987) The female world of cards and holidays: Women, families, and the work of kinship
Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 12(3), 440–453 · a study
Named “kin work”: the cards, calls, visits, gifts and gatherings that keep extended families connected. In the families she studied, it was done mostly by women and often treated as effortless.
Moderate evidence Influential anthropological study; qualitative.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: What counts as work: the parts nobody sees (Book: Is the split working?) · The kinds of unseen work (Book: The work nobody sees) · Holidays and family gatherings (Library: Family, money and life changes)
Topics: invisible work, family keeping-in-touch, family, gender
Gordon, A. M., Impett, E. A., Kogan, A., and colleagues (2012) To have and to hold: Gratitude promotes relationship maintenance in intimate bonds
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(2), 257–274 · a study
People who felt more appreciated by their romantic partners were more appreciative of their partners in return, and appreciation was linked with relationship maintenance and commitment.
Moderate evidence Several studies including longitudinal data; correlational.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Unbilled debt: the work that goes unseen (Book: The work nobody sees) · Recognition and appreciation (Library: Fairness and the mental load at home) · Gratitude in relationships: find, remind, bind (Library: Kindness and connection) · Sleep, mood and conflict (Library: Stress and the body)
Topics: appreciation, recognition, fairness, relationships, gratitude, maintenance
Hochschild, A. R. (1983) The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling
Berkeley: University of California Press (reissued 2003, 2012) · a book
Coined “emotional labor” from a study of flight attendants (and bill collectors) trained to display feelings at work; distinguished surface acting from deep acting.
Strong evidence As a concept.
Read more → search.worldcat.org
Where this shows up on the site: The kinds of unseen work (Book: The work nobody sees) · Emotional labor (Library: Fairness and the mental load at home)
Topics: emotional labor, invisible work
Hochschild, A. R., with Machung, A. (1989) The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home
Viking Penguin (updated edition 2012, Penguin Books) · a book
Interviews and home observations of dual-earner couples with young children found that working mothers did much more of the housework and childcare, adding up to a large extra load over a year; many couples told themselves stories that the split was fair.
Moderate evidence Influential qualitative study; its figures describe its sample, though large time-use surveys confirm a persistent (narrowing) gap.
Read more → penguinrandomhouse.com
Where this shows up on the site: What counts as work: the parts nobody sees (Book: Is the split working?) · Unbilled debt: the work that goes unseen (Book: The work nobody sees) · The second shift (Library: Fairness and the mental load at home) · The mental load: what the research says (Book: The work nobody sees) · The mental load: what research finds, and what it doesn’t (Book: The work nobody sees)
Topics: invisible work, the second shift, gender, time use
Klontz, B., Britt, S. L., Mentzer, J., & Klontz, T. (2011) Money beliefs and financial behaviors: Development of the Klontz Money Script Inventory
Journal of Financial Therapy, 2(1), 1–22 · a study
In 422 respondents, beliefs about money clustered into four “money scripts” (money avoidance, money worship, money status and money vigilance), several of which were linked with income and net worth.
Early evidence A newer measure from one sample; the site rightly calls it “less established”.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: What money means to us (Library: Family, money and life changes) · Money between you (Book: Two kinds of fair)
Topics: money, family scripts
Kurdek, L. A. (2007) The allocation of household labor by partners in gay and lesbian couples
Journal of Family Issues, 28(1), 132–148 · a study
Among 43 gay and 36 lesbian couples where both partners worked full-time, household tasks were divided more evenly than is typical in heterosexual couples, often by negotiation and specialisation rather than gender.
Moderate evidence Small, non-random samples; consistent with other studies of same-sex couples.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Workload balance (Book: Is the split working?) · Who this book is for (Book: The work nobody sees)
Topics: sharing housework, gender, same sex couples
Lind, E. A., & Tyler, T. R. (1988) The Social Psychology of Procedural Justice
Plenum Press (Critical Issues in Social Justice series) · a book
Reviews theory and research on procedural justice and its implications for legal, political, interpersonal and work settings.
Strong evidence Standard scholarly synthesis.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Fair process: why how we decide matters (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it)
Topics: procedural justice, fairness
Lind, E. A. (2001) Fairness heuristic theory: Justice judgments as pivotal cognitions in organizational relations
In J. Greenberg & R. Cropanzano (Eds.), Advances in Organizational Justice (pp. 56–88). Stanford University Press · a theory or model
Proposed that people use fair treatment as a mental shortcut when deciding whether to trust and cooperate with an authority or group.
Moderate evidence Influential theory with supporting experiments.
Read more → search.library.wisc.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Fair process: why how we decide matters (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it)
Topics: procedural justice, fairness, trust, work
Papp, L. M., Cummings, E. M., & Goeke-Morey, M. C. (2009) For richer, for poorer: Money as a topic of marital conflict in the home
Family Relations, 58(1), 91–103 · a study
In home diary records of marital conflict, money was not the most frequent topic, but money conflicts were more pervasive, problematic and recurrent than other conflicts and more likely to stay unresolved.
Moderate evidence Diary design with one US community sample; correlational.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Disagreeing about money (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it) · Money between you (Book: Two kinds of fair)
Topics: money, conflict, couples
Rick, S. I., Small, D. A., & Finkel, E. J. (2011) Fatal (fiscal) attraction: Spendthrifts and tightwads in marriage
Journal of Marketing Research, 48(2), 228–237 · a study
Tightwads and spendthrifts tend to marry each other; the bigger the difference within a couple, the more conflict over money, which in turn predicts lower marital wellbeing.
Moderate evidence Several survey studies; correlational.
Read more → kellogg.northwestern.edu
Where this shows up on the site: What money means to us (Library: Family, money and life changes) · Money between you (Book: Two kinds of fair)
Topics: money, couples, conflict
Ross, M., & Sicoly, F. (1979) Egocentric biases in availability and attribution
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(3), 322–336 · a study
In five experiments (married couples, groups, basketball teams), people recalled more of their own contributions to joint work and took more responsibility than others gave them; spouses’ estimates of their own shares typically summed to more than 100 percent.
Strong evidence Classic, widely replicated.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: What the check is for (Book: Is the split working?) · Honest research notes (Book: Two kinds of fair) · Why the other person doesn’t see it (Book: The work nobody sees) · Where the thirteen fields meet in this chapter (Book: The work nobody sees) · Why we each think we do more (Library: Fairness and the mental load at home)
Topics: invisible work, fairness, egocentric bias, scorekeeping
Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., Brown, G. L., Cannon, E. A., and colleagues (2008) Maternal gatekeeping, coparenting quality, and fathering behavior in families with infants
Journal of Family Psychology, 22(3), 389–398 · a study
In 97 couples with infants, fathers were more involved in day-to-day care when mothers actively encouraged them (gate-opening); when mothers were highly critical (gate-closing), fathers’ own beliefs about involvement mattered less.
Moderate evidence Observational study of one US sample; correlational.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Common mix-ups, and how to fix them (Book: Two kinds of fair) · Gatekeeping: when standards keep others out (Library: Fairness and the mental load at home) · “Weaponised incompetence” and learned helplessness at home (Library: Fairness and the mental load at home) · The mental load: what the research says (Book: The work nobody sees) · The mental load: what research finds, and what it doesn’t (Book: The work nobody sees)
Topics: gatekeeping, co-parenting, parenting
Thibaut, J., & Walker, L. (1975) Procedural Justice: A Psychological Analysis
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates (Hillsdale, NJ) · a book
Founded procedural-justice research: people’s judgments of whether a decision process is fair (especially having a voice) shape how satisfied they are with the outcome.
Strong evidence One of the more robust findings in social and organizational psychology, though early lab methods were criticised.
Read more → law.virginia.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Agreeing, in three homes (Book: Two kinds of fair) · The four principles of principled negotiation (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it) · Fair process: why how we decide matters (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it)
Topics: procedural justice, fairness, decisions
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (ongoing) American Time Use Survey (ATUS)
Federal survey (conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau) · a study
The federal survey of how, where and with whom Americans spend their time, including unpaid housework and childcare; it has run every year since 2003.
Strong evidence Large national time-diary survey.
Read more → bls.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Workload balance (Book: Is the split working?)
Topics: time use
Walster, E. [Hatfield, E.], Walster, G. W., & Berscheid, E. (1978) Equity: Theory and Research
Allyn and Bacon (Boston) · a book
Extended equity theory to close relationships: feeling under-benefited goes with anger and resentment, feeling over-benefited with guilt, and both with less satisfaction than feeling things are roughly fair.
Moderate evidence Influential; in loving relationships the evidence is more mixed than at work.
Read more → elainehatfield.com
Where this shows up on the site: Your circle of control, and matching energy (Book: Know yourself) · What’s in your control, then and now (Book: Know yourself) · Equity theory (Library: Fairness and the mental load at home)
Topics: equity, fairness, relationships
Back to the search and topics
Couples and close relationships
What keeps people close over the years, and what slowly pulls them apart.
Aron, A., & Aron, E. N. (1986) Love and the Expansion of Self: Understanding Attraction and Satisfaction
Hemisphere Publishing (Washington, DC) · a book
Introduced the self-expansion model: people are motivated to grow by including a partner's perspectives, resources and identity in their sense of self.
Moderate evidence Influential theory with broad later support.
Read more → libcat.library.tamu.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Self-expansion and doing new things together (Library: How relationships work) · Love changes over time (Book: Closeness and love)
Topics: self expansion
Aron, A., Norman, C. C., Aron, E. N., and colleagues (2000) Couples' shared participation in novel and arousing activities and experienced relationship quality
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(2), 273–284 · a study
Couples who took part together in a novel, mildly challenging activity reported higher relationship quality afterward than couples who did a mundane task.
Moderate evidence Experiments with short-term lab effects; later studies mostly supportive.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: 5. With a partner (Guide: Complacency) · 16. Where this comes from (Guide: Complacency) · Pillar V: Notice the quiet incentives (borrowed from behavioral economics) (Library: The science behind the program) · Complacency and getting used to good things (Library: Kindness and connection) · How relationships work and the Five Pillars (Library: How relationships work)
Topics: complacency, self expansion, novelty
Brickman, P., & Campbell, D. T. (1971) Hedonic relativism and planning the good society
In M. H. Appley (Ed.), Adaptation-Level Theory (pp. 287–302). Academic Press · a theory or model
Introduced the idea later called the hedonic treadmill: people adapt to improved circumstances, so gains in happiness tend to fade.
Moderate evidence Influential theory; later research shows adaptation is real but often incomplete and varies by event.
Read more → worlddatabaseofhappiness.eur.nl
Where this shows up on the site: 16. Where this comes from (Guide: Complacency) · Complacency and getting used to good things (Library: Kindness and connection) · Getting used to things (Library: Family, money and life changes)
Topics: complacency, hedonic adaptation
Brown, N. J. L., Sokal, A. D., & Friedman, H. L. (2013) The complex dynamics of wishful thinking: The critical positivity ratio
American Psychologist, 68(9), 801–813 · a review of research
Showed that the mathematical modelling behind the claimed 'critical positivity ratio' (about 2.9 to 1, the so-called Losada ratio) was unfounded; the original paper's modelling claims were formally withdrawn.
Strong evidence The critique was accepted and the original model retracted.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Positive emotions: broaden and build (Library: Feelings and emotions) · The 5:1 ratio (Library: How relationships work)
Topics: the 5-to-1 ratio, limits, emotions, positive emotions
Bruess, C. J. S., & Pearson, J. C. (1993) 'Sweet pea' and 'pussy cat': An examination of idiom use and marital satisfaction over the life cycle
Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 10(4), 609–615 · a study
In 154 married couples, more satisfied spouses reported using more private idioms; idiom use was highest early in marriage and declined across the life cycle.
Early evidence One correlational study using recalled idioms.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: 16. Where this comes from (Guide: Complacency) · Shared language and touchstones (Library: Kindness and connection) · An honest word about the evidence (Guide: Touchstones, in full) · An honest word about the evidence (Guide: Touchstones)
Topics: shared language, maintenance
Bruess, C. J. S., & Pearson, J. C. (1997) Interpersonal rituals in marriage and adult friendship
Communication Monographs, 64(1), 25–46 · a study
Interviews and questionnaires with married couples produced typologies of the everyday rituals people share in marriage (seven types) and in adult friendship (six types).
Early evidence Descriptive, qualitative study.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: 16. Where this comes from (Guide: Complacency) · Shared language and touchstones (Library: Kindness and connection) · An honest word about the evidence (Guide: Touchstones, in full) · An honest word about the evidence (Guide: Touchstones) · Why little rituals matter (Guide: Keep your little rituals alive)
Topics: rituals, maintenance, friendship
Carstensen, L. L., Isaacowitz, D. M., & Charles, S. T. (1999) Taking time seriously: A theory of socioemotional selectivity
American Psychologist, 54(3), 165–181 · a theory or model
Proposes that perceived time left shapes social goals: when time feels open-ended people seek new information and contacts; when it feels limited they focus on fewer, emotionally meaningful relationships.
Strong evidence Widely supported theory, though causal tests are harder.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Closeness and love: being known, at every age (Book) · Love at every age (Book: Closeness and love)
Topics: ageing, relationships, love, friendship
Chapman, G. (1992) The Five Love Languages: How to Express Heartfelt Commitment to Your Mate
Northfield Publishing (Chicago); later editions retitled The 5 Love Languages · a book
A counselor's book proposing five ways people express and prefer to receive love: words of affirmation, acts of service, receiving gifts, quality time and physical touch. It came from counseling experience, not research.
Debated Very popular; research has not supported its core assumptions (see Impett, Park & Muise, 2024).
Read more → en.wikipedia.org
Where this shows up on the site: Apology languages: saying sorry so it lands (Guide) · An honest word about the evidence (Guide: Apology languages) · Appreciation at work: a menu, not a label (Guide) · An honest word about the evidence (Guide: Appreciation at work) · Love languages, and what the evidence says (Library: How relationships work)
Topics: love languages
Christensen, A., Atkins, D. C., Berns, S., and colleagues (2004) Traditional versus integrative behavioral couple therapy for significantly and chronically distressed married couples
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(2), 176–191 · a study
In a randomized trial with 134 seriously distressed couples, both integrative (acceptance-based) and traditional behavioral couple therapy produced similar rates of clinically significant improvement, with different patterns of change during treatment.
Strong evidence Randomized clinical trial.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Supporting change in others (Book: Habits and change) · Acceptance alongside change (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it) · Perpetual and solvable problems (Library: How relationships work)
Topics: acceptance, perpetual problems, couple therapy
Christensen, A., Atkins, D. C., Baucom, B., & Yi, J. (2010) Marital status and satisfaction five years following a randomized clinical trial comparing traditional versus integrative behavioral couple therapy
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(2), 225–235 · a study
Five-year follow-up of the same trial: both therapies helped many couples; integrative therapy showed an advantage in satisfaction through two years of follow-up, with many couples maintaining gains at five years.
Strong evidence Long follow-up of a randomized trial.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Acceptance alongside change (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it) · Perpetual and solvable problems (Library: How relationships work)
Topics: acceptance, couple therapy
Drigotas, S. M., Rusbult, C. E., Wieselquist, J., & Whitton, S. W. (1999) Close partner as sculptor of the ideal self: Behavioral affirmation and the Michelangelo phenomenon
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(2), 293–323 · a study
Across four studies, people whose partners saw and treated them in line with their ideal self moved closer to that ideal over time, and this affirmation was linked with better couple functioning and more stable relationships.
Moderate evidence Correlational and longitudinal, not experimental.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Supporting change in others (Book: Habits and change) · The Michelangelo effect (Library: How relationships work)
Topics: the Michelangelo effect, change, relationships
Driver, J. L., & Gottman, J. M. (2004) Daily marital interactions and positive affect during marital conflict among newlywed couples
Family Process, 43(3), 301–314 · a study
Observing 49 newlywed couples over dinner and in a conflict discussion, the authors linked turning toward each other's everyday bids with more positive emotion (such as humor and affection) during later conflict.
Moderate evidence Observational and correlational, small sample; direction of cause not established.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Bids for connection (Library: How relationships work) · Where this comes from (Guide: Turning Toward) · Love is something you do (Book: Closeness and love)
Topics: bids, turning toward, Gottman’s research
Fiese, B. H., Tomcho, T. J., Douglas, M., and colleagues (2002) A review of 50 years of research on naturally occurring family routines and rituals: Cause for celebration?
Journal of Family Psychology, 16(4), 381–390 · a review of research
A review of 32 publications found family routines and rituals were related to parenting competence, children's adjustment and marital satisfaction, while noting weak measurement and convenience samples.
Moderate evidence Qualitative review of mostly correlational studies.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: How closeness grows: what research says (Guide: Bonding) · 16. Where this comes from (Guide: Complacency) · Rituals of connection (Library: Kindness and connection) · Shared language and touchstones (Library: Kindness and connection) · Why little rituals matter (Guide: Keep your little rituals alive)
Topics: rituals
Gable, S. L., Reis, H. T., Impett, E. A., & Asher, E. R. (2004) What do you do when things go right? The intrapersonal and interpersonal benefits of sharing positive events
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(2), 228–245 · a study
Across four studies, telling others about good news was linked with higher daily positive mood and well-being beyond the event itself, especially when the listener responded actively and constructively; couples whose partners usually responded enthusiastically reported more intimacy and satisfaction.
Strong evidence Multiple studies, widely replicated; mostly correlational.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: How closeness grows: what research says (Guide: Bonding) · Gratitude in relationships: find, remind, bind (Library: Kindness and connection) · Responding to good news (Library: Kindness and connection) · Other ideas like it, and how well they hold up (Guide: Love languages, in depth) · 3. Celebrate good news (Guide: Turning Toward)
Topics: capitalization, good news
Gable, S. L., Gonzaga, G. C., & Strachman, A. (2006) Will you be there for me when things go right? Supportive responses to positive event disclosures
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(5), 904–917 · a study
In 79 dating couples filmed sharing recent events, how partners responded to good news predicted relationship well-being and break-ups two months later more strongly than how they responded to bad news.
Moderate evidence Observational study with a modest sample.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Responding to good news (Library: Kindness and connection)
Topics: capitalization
Gottman, J. M., & Silver, N. (1999) The Seven Principles for Making Marriage Work
Crown Publishers (New York); revised edition 2015 · a book
A popular book translating Gottman's research into practice: love maps, fondness and admiration, turning toward bids, accepting influence, solving solvable problems, managing perpetual ones, and shared meaning.
Moderate evidence Practice framework drawing on his research rather than separately tested.
Read more → en.wikipedia.org
Where this shows up on the site: 5. With a partner (Guide: Complacency) · 16. Where this comes from (Guide: Complacency) · Love maps and knowing each other’s world (Library: How relationships work) · 6. Know their world (Guide: Turning Toward) · Where this comes from (Guide: Turning Toward)
Topics: love maps, bids, turning toward, perpetual problems
Hopper, R., Knapp, M. L., & Scott, L. (1981) Couples' personal idioms: Exploring intimate talk
Journal of Communication, 31(1), 23–33 · a study
An exploratory study of the private words, nicknames and phrases couples develop (personal idioms) and what they are used for in intimate talk.
Early evidence Descriptive, exploratory study.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: 16. Where this comes from (Guide: Complacency) · Shared language and touchstones (Library: Kindness and connection)
Topics: shared language, maintenance
Impett, E. A., Park, H. G., & Muise, A. (2024) Popular psychology through a scientific lens: Evaluating love languages from a relationship science perspective
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 33(2), 87–92 · a review of research
Reviewing the evidence, the authors concluded that the core assumptions of the five love languages (that people have one primary language and that matching languages improves relationships) are not well supported, while its underlying message of learning what a partner needs is sound.
Strong evidence Peer-reviewed review of the evidence.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Responding to good news (Library: Kindness and connection) · Love languages, and what the evidence says (Library: How relationships work) · Where it came from, and what the research says (Guide: Love languages, in depth)
Topics: love languages
Jiang, L. C., & Hancock, J. T. (2013) Absence makes the communication grow fonder: Geographic separation, interpersonal media, and intimacy in dating relationships
Journal of Communication, 63(3), 556–577 · a study
A diary study found long-distance dating couples disclosed more and idealized each other more than geographically close couples, which helped them feel as intimate or more so, with effects varying by communication medium.
Early evidence One diary study of student couples.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Long-distance and apart (Guide)
Topics: long distance
Kurtz, L. E., & Algoe, S. B. (2015) Putting laughter in context: Shared laughter as behavioral indicator of relationship well-being
Personal Relationships, 22(4), 573–590 · a study
In 71 couples filmed talking about how they met, the share of time partners spent laughing together (beyond laughter overall) went with higher relationship quality, closeness and perceived support.
Moderate evidence One observational study, correlational.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: How closeness grows: what research says (Guide: Bonding) · Humor in hard moments (Library: Talking and listening) · Play and fun for adults (Library: Kindness and connection)
Topics: humor, play
Laurenceau, J.-P., Barrett, L. F., & Pietromonaco, P. R. (1998) Intimacy as an interpersonal process: The importance of self-disclosure, partner disclosure, and perceived partner responsiveness in interpersonal exchanges
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(5), 1238–1251 · a study
Diary studies of everyday social interactions supported Reis and Shaver’s model: disclosing feelings, and feeling that the other person responded with understanding, both contributed to how intimate an interaction felt.
Moderate evidence Two diary studies with students.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Closeness and love: being known, at every age (Book) · Closeness grows from being known (Book: Closeness and love)
Topics: intimacy, responsiveness, self disclosure, love
Le, B., & Agnew, C. R. (2003) Commitment and its theorized determinants: A meta-analysis of the Investment Model
Personal Relationships, 10(1), 37–57 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
A meta-analysis of 52 studies (11,582 participants) found satisfaction, quality of alternatives and investments each correlated with commitment, together explaining about two-thirds of its variance; commitment in turn predicted break-up.
Strong evidence Meta-analysis, updated by Tran et al. (2019) with similar conclusions.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Commitment and the investment model (Library: How relationships work)
Topics: commitment
Lyubomirsky, S. (2011) Hedonic adaptation to positive and negative experiences
In S. Folkman (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Stress, Health, and Coping (pp. 200–224). Oxford University Press (online 2010) · a review of research
Reviews evidence that both joys and sorrows fade over time, discusses why people may adapt differently to positive and negative changes, and presents a model of how adaptation to positive changes might be slowed.
Moderate evidence Narrative review.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: 16. Where this comes from (Guide: Complacency) · Complacency and getting used to good things (Library: Kindness and connection)
Topics: complacency, hedonic adaptation
Mahoney, A. (2010) Religion in families, 1999–2009: A relational spirituality framework
Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(4), 805–827 · a review of research
Reviewed a decade of peer-reviewed studies on religion in marriage and parent–child relationships, “for better and worse”, organising them by how faith may help form, maintain and change family relationships; faith can strengthen family life and can also be a source of strain.
Moderate evidence A broad review; most studies are correlational.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Faith, culture and family voices (Book: Why we get out of tune)
Topics: faith, couples, family
McNulty, J. K., O'Mara, E. M., & Karney, B. R. (2008) Benevolent cognitions as a strategy of relationship maintenance: "Don't sweat the small stuff"... but it is not all small stuff
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(4), 631–646 · a study
Studies of newlyweds on benevolent (generous) interpretations of a partner's behavior; as the title indicates, such interpretations help with small problems but not with serious ones. Only the title and PubMed record were confirmed in search.
Moderate evidence Longitudinal newlywed studies.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Positive illusions: seeing each other generously (Library: How relationships work)
Topics: positive illusions, limits
Murray, S. L., Holmes, J. G., & Griffin, D. W. (1996) The self-fulfilling nature of positive illusions in romantic relationships: Love is not blind, but prescient
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(6), 1155–1180 · a study
Following dating couples over a year, relationships were most likely to last, even through conflicts and doubts, when partners idealized each other most; idealization predicted later gains in satisfaction and fewer conflicts.
Moderate evidence Longitudinal but correlational; later work shows limits when problems are serious.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Positive illusions: seeing each other generously (Library: How relationships work)
Topics: positive illusions
Reis, H. T., & Shaver, P. (1988) Intimacy as an interpersonal process
In S. Duck (Ed.), Handbook of Personal Relationships (pp. 367–389). Chichester: Wiley · a theory or model
Described intimacy as a back-and-forth process: one person shares something, the other responds with understanding, validation and care, and the first feels known.
Strong evidence As a model: later diary studies (e.g. Laurenceau and colleagues, 1998) found disclosure and partner responsiveness both feed feeling close.
Read more → search.worldcat.org
Where this shows up on the site: How closeness grows: what research says (Guide: Bonding) · Responding to good news (Library: Kindness and connection) · Perceived partner responsiveness (Library: How relationships work) · Other ideas like it, and how well they hold up (Guide: Love languages, in depth) · Closeness is built a step at a time. (Book: Closeness and love)
Topics: closeness, love, responsiveness
Roberts, J. A., & David, M. E. (2016) My life has become a major distraction from my cell phone: Partner phubbing and relationship satisfaction among romantic partners
Computers in Human Behavior, 54, 134–141 · a study
In surveys of adults in romantic relationships, a partner's phone snubbing (phubbing) was linked with more conflict over phone use and, through that, lower relationship satisfaction, and indirectly with lower life satisfaction and more depressive symptoms.
Moderate evidence Cross-sectional surveys; replicated in several later studies.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Phones and presence (Library: Calm and attention)
Topics: phubbing, attention
Rusbult, C. E. (1980) Commitment and satisfaction in romantic associations: A test of the investment model
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 16(2), 172–186 · a study
Two studies tested the investment model: commitment to a relationship was predicted by satisfaction, the quality of alternatives and the size of investments.
Strong evidence Foundational, later confirmed by meta-analyses.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Pillar V: Notice the quiet incentives (borrowed from behavioral economics) (Library: The science behind the program) · How relationships work and the Five Pillars (Library: How relationships work) · Commitment and the investment model (Library: How relationships work)
Topics: commitment, maintenance
Back to the search and topics
Talking, listening and conflict
How hard conversations start, what keeps them calm, and how messages land.
Carrère, S., & Gottman, J. M. (1999) Predicting divorce among newlyweds from the first three minutes of a marital conflict discussion
Family Process, 38(3), 293–301 · a study
In 124 newlywed couples, how the first three minutes of a conflict discussion went (more negative and less positive emotion) predicted which couples divorced over the next six years.
Moderate evidence One research group's observational sample; striking but not widely replicated as a precise predictor.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Going back in: say it so it lands (Book: Why we get out of tune) · Telling someone they hurt you (Book: Healing after hurt) · Saying hard things kindly (Book: How communication works) · Soft startup: how the first minutes shape a conversation (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it) · Accepting influence (Library: How relationships work)
Topics: soft startup, conflict, Gottman’s research
Christensen, A., & Heavey, C. L. (1990) Gender and social structure in the demand/withdraw pattern of marital conflict
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(1), 73–81 · a study
Wife-demand/husband-withdraw was more common overall, but who demanded depended partly on whose issue was being discussed; the authors linked the pattern to social structure (who wants change) as well as gender.
Moderate evidence Influential observational study; later work finds topic predicts the demander role about as strongly as gender.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Supporting change in others (Book: Habits and change) · What the research says (Guide: Effective communication) · Acceptance alongside change (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it) · The pursue–withdraw cycle (Library: How relationships work) · One of you wants to talk now, the other needs space (Guide)
Topics: pursue and withdraw, demand and withdraw
Daft, R. L., & Lengel, R. H. (1986) Organizational information requirements, media richness and structural design
Management Science, 32(5), 554–571 · a theory or model
Proposed media richness theory: richer channels (face to face, then phone, then written) are better suited to ambiguous, equivocal messages.
Moderate evidence Influential theory; later research found people adapt to leaner media over time.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Messages lose their tone (Book: How communication works) · Why tone gets lost in text (Library: Talking and listening) · Talking well at work (Library: Talking and listening)
Topics: texts and tone, media richness
Fisher, R., & Ury, W. (later editions with Patton, B.) (1981) Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In
Houghton Mifflin (Boston); 2nd ed. 1991 and 3rd ed. 2011 with Bruce Patton (Penguin) · a book
Set out principled negotiation: separate people from the problem, focus on interests rather than positions, invent options for mutual gain, use objective criteria, and know your best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA).
Moderate evidence Very influential practitioner framework informed by research; critics note it can underplay power differences.
Read more → search.worldcat.org
Where this shows up on the site: Interests versus positions (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it) · The four principles of principled negotiation (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it) · BATNA: knowing your alternatives (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it)
Topics: negotiation, interests, not positions
Gilovich, T., Savitsky, K., & Medvec, V. H. (1998) The illusion of transparency: Biased assessments of others' ability to read one's emotional states
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(2), 332–346 · a study
In several sets of studies, people overestimated how well others could read their internal states (for example, liars overestimated how detectable their lies were, and people thought their disgust showed more than it did).
Strong evidence Replicated and extended.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: The radio whistle (Book: Why we get out of tune) · Meaning is made between two people (Book: How communication works) · Pillar IV: Tune how you send and receive (borrowed from signal theory; the site’s Frequency Framework) (Library: The science behind the program) · Pillar V: Notice the quiet incentives (borrowed from behavioral economics) (Library: The science behind the program) · Thinking traps and the Five Pillars (Library: Thinking traps)
Topics: illusion of transparency
Gordon, T. (1970) P.E.T.: Parent Effectiveness Training
New York: P. H. Wyden (book; revised 2000) · a book
A parenting book and course that popularised “I-messages”: describing your own feelings and the effect of a behaviour rather than blaming the other person.
Mixed evidence Widely taught; research on I-statements finds tone and context matter as much as wording.
Read more → search.worldcat.org
Where this shows up on the site: Going back in: say it so it lands (Book: Why we get out of tune) · Saying hard things kindly (Book: How communication works) · I-statements (Library: Talking and listening) · Say it, don’t throw it (Book: Anger)
Topics: “I” statements
Gottman, J. M., & Levenson, R. W. (1992) Marital processes predictive of later dissolution: Behavior, physiology, and health
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(2), 221–233 · a study
Following 73 couples from 1983 to 1987, couples whose conflict interactions were more negative than positive had more marital problems, lower satisfaction, poorer health and greater risk of separation; physiological arousal was measured alongside behavior.
Moderate evidence Influential longitudinal lab study with a small sample.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: The four horsemen and their antidotes (Library: How relationships work) · Flooding (Library: How relationships work) · The research behind this page (Guide: The logic behind it)
Topics: four horsemen, flooding, Gottman’s research
Gottman, J. M. (1994) What predicts divorce? The relationship between marital processes and marital outcomes
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates (Hillsdale, NJ); reissued by Routledge · a book
Gottman’s report of his long-term studies of couples, including “flooding”: feeling so physically overwhelmed in a conflict that listening and thinking become very hard.
Moderate evidence Large observational studies; some specific predictions have been debated.
Read more → routledge.com
Where this shows up on the site: The four horsemen and their antidotes (Library: How relationships work) · Different conflict styles in couples (Library: How relationships work) · How stress changes your frequency (Book: Why we get out of tune) · The three everyday states (Book: Full tanks and different angles) · If only one of you is on board (Book: Two kinds of fair)
Topics: conflict, flooding
Gottman, J. M., Coan, J., Carrère, S., & Swanson, C. (1998) Predicting marital happiness and stability from newlywed interactions
Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60(1), 5–22 · a study
In a six-year study of newlyweds, husbands who accepted influence from their wives were more likely to have stable, happy marriages, while active-listening style paraphrasing during conflict was rare and did not predict outcomes.
Moderate evidence One lab's observational sample of heterosexual newlyweds; the active-listening finding was debated.
Read more → jstor.org
Where this shows up on the site: Listening is something you do (Book: How communication works) · Active listening (Library: Talking and listening) · Reflective listening and summarizing (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it) · Accepting influence (Library: How relationships work)
Topics: accepting influence, active listening, Gottman’s research
Gunraj, D. N., Drumm-Hewitt, A. M., Dashow, E. M., and colleagues (2016) Texting insincerely: The role of the period in text messaging
Computers in Human Behavior, 55, 1067–1075 · a study
Short text-message replies ending in a period were rated as less sincere than the same replies without one; the effect did not appear for handwritten notes.
Early evidence One study with students; later work suggests the effect fades for longer messages.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Messages lose their tone (Book: How communication works) · Neurotypical (Guide: Wired Differently)
Topics: texts and tone
Huang, K., Yeomans, M., Brooks, A. W., and colleagues (2017) It doesn't hurt to ask: Question-asking increases liking
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(3), 430–452 · a study
In studies of live conversations, people who asked more questions, especially follow-up questions, were better liked by their partners and seen as more responsive.
Moderate evidence Several studies; a 2025 correction fixed minor reporting errors but an audit confirmed the conclusions.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Asking good questions (Library: Talking and listening) · Love maps and knowing each other’s world (Library: How relationships work)
Topics: asking questions, love maps, responsiveness
Jehn, K. A. (1995) A multimethod examination of the benefits and detriments of intragroup conflict
Administrative Science Quarterly, 40(2), 256–282 · a study
Distinguished relationship conflict (personal friction) from task conflict (disagreement about the work); relationship conflict was linked with lower satisfaction and performance, while task conflict could help on non-routine tasks.
Moderate evidence Influential distinction; later meta-analyses find task conflict is often less helpful than first thought.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Disagreeing at work (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it)
Topics: conflict, teams, work
Kruger, J., Epley, N., Parker, J., & Ng, Z.-W. (2005) Egocentrism over e-mail: Can we communicate as well as we think?
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(6), 925–936 · a study
Across five experiments, people overestimated how well email recipients would detect their tone (such as sarcasm or seriousness), partly because they found it hard to step outside their own perspective.
Strong evidence Several experiments, widely cited.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: What sets the frequency (Book: Why we get out of tune) · A comment landing hard, in three relationships (Book: Two kinds of fair) · Messages lose their tone (Book: How communication works) · What the research says (Guide: Effective communication) · Why tone gets lost in text (Library: Talking and listening)
Topics: texts and tone, illusion of transparency
Malinowski, B. (1923) The problem of meaning in primitive languages
Supplement I (pp. 451–510 in later printings) in C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards, The Meaning of Meaning. London: Kegan Paul; New York: Harcourt, Brace · a theory or model
Named “phatic communion”: small talk whose job is not to pass on information but to create and keep up a bond (“ties of union are created by mere exchange of words”).
An idea, not a test A classic idea in anthropology and linguistics.
Read more → archive.org
Where this shows up on the site: Small talk has a job, and it can be short. (Book: How communication works) · Small talk and social scripts (Book: How communication works)
Topics: communication, small talk
Markman, H. J., Stanley, S. M., & Blumberg, S. L. (1994) Fighting for Your Marriage: Positive Steps for Preventing Divorce and Preserving a Lasting Love
Jossey-Bass (San Francisco); revised 2001 and 2010 · a book
A book based on the PREP couples program, teaching skills such as the speaker-listener technique for safer conflict.
Moderate evidence PREP has been tested in trials with some positive and some mixed long-term results.
Read more → libcat.simmons.edu
Where this shows up on the site: The speaker–listener technique (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it)
Topics: speaker listener, prep
Pinker, S., Nowak, M. A., & Lee, J. J. (2008) The logic of indirect speech
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(3), 833–838 · a theory or model
Argued, with a game-theory model, that hints and other indirect requests let a speaker make a request or offer while keeping plausible deniability, so both people can avoid an open refusal and the relationship stays safe.
An idea, not a test A model and argument, not a large experiment; a later paper by Lee and Pinker (2010) developed it further and others have debated it.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: The research behind this page (Guide: The logic behind it)
Topics: indirect speech, hints, politeness, communication
Rosenberg, M. B. (1999) Nonviolent Communication: A Language of Compassion (later editions: A Language of Life)
PuddleDancer Press (Encinitas, CA); 2nd ed. 2003, 3rd ed. 2015 · a book
Describes Nonviolent Communication: expressing observations, feelings, needs and requests, and listening for the same in others.
Early evidence Widely used practice; few rigorous studies.
Read more → vufind.lboro.ac.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Going back in: say it so it lands (Book: Why we get out of tune) · Your needs, what matters to you, and what’s fair to you (Book: Know yourself) · Telling someone they hurt you (Book: Healing after hurt) · Saying hard things kindly (Book: How communication works) · What the research says (Guide: Effective communication)
Topics: Nonviolent Communication
Savitsky, K., Keysar, B., Epley, N., and colleagues (2011) The closeness-communication bias: Increased egocentrism among friends versus strangers
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47(1), 269–273 · a study
In three experiments, people overestimated how well they communicated with friends and spouses, more than with strangers, and made more egocentric errors following a friend's directions; closeness seemed to relax the checking people do with strangers.
Moderate evidence Short report of three small experiments; later work extended it.
Read more → sciencedirect.com
Where this shows up on the site: Why being nearly in step is the noisy part (Book: Why we get out of tune) · Check, don’t guess (Book: How communication works) · Questions people often ask (Book: How communication works) · What the research says (Guide: Effective communication) · How communication works: meaning, listening, repair and messages (Book)
Topics: closeness communication bias
Schrodt, P., Witt, P. L., & Shimkowski, J. R. (2014) A meta-analytical review of the demand/withdraw pattern of interaction and its associations with individual, relational, and communicative outcomes
Communication Monographs, 81(1), 28–58 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Pooling 74 studies (about 14,000 people), demand/withdraw was moderately associated with poorer relational, communicative and individual outcomes, similarly whichever partner demanded, and more strongly in distressed couples.
Strong evidence Large meta-analysis, though the associations are correlational.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Tools that work as homework between sessions (Guide: For counselors, coaches and group leaders) · The pursue–withdraw cycle (Library: How relationships work)
Topics: pursue and withdraw, demand and withdraw
Shenk, C. E., & Fruzzetti, A. E. (2011) The impact of validating and invalidating responses on emotional reactivity
Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 30(2), 163–183 · a study
In a lab stress task, people who received invalidating responses showed more negative emotion, higher heart rate and higher skin conductance over time than those who received validating responses.
Moderate evidence Lab experiment.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Validation (Library: Talking and listening)
Topics: validation
Stone, D., Patton, B., & Heen, S. (1999) Difficult Conversations: How to Discuss What Matters Most
Viking (New York); 10th-anniversary edition, Penguin 2010 · a book
A practitioner book from the Harvard Negotiation Project describing three conversations inside every hard conversation (what happened, feelings, identity) and the gap between intent and impact.
Moderate evidence Practice framework grounded in negotiation experience, not controlled studies.
Read more → penguinrandomhouse.com
Where this shows up on the site: Two questions, in three relationships (Book: Two kinds of fair) · Intent and impact (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it) · The three conversations inside every difficult conversation (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it)
Topics: difficult conversations, intent and impact
Watzlawick, P., Beavin [Bavelas], J. H., & Jackson, D. D. (1967) Pragmatics of Human Communication: A Study of Interactional Patterns, Pathologies, and Paradoxes
New York: W. W. Norton (book) · a book
Set out a few “axioms” of communication, including that every message has a content level (what is said) and a relationship level (what it says about us), and that the relationship level often decides how the content is heard.
An idea, not a test Influential in communication and family therapy; a framework rather than a tested finding.
Read more → ci.nii.ac.jp
Where this shows up on the site: Every message says two things (Book: How communication works) · Listening is something you do, not something that happens. (Book: How communication works)
Topics: communication
Weger, H., Jr., Castle Bell, G., Minei, E. M., & Robinson, M. C. (2014) The relative effectiveness of active listening in initial interactions
International Journal of Listening, 28(1), 13–31 · a study
People who talked with a listener using active-listening responses felt more understood than those who received advice or simple acknowledgements; differences in satisfaction and liking were small.
Moderate evidence One experiment with 115 participants and trained confederates, in first meetings rather than close relationships.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Listening is something you do (Book: How communication works) · Active listening (Library: Talking and listening) · How communication works: meaning, listening, repair and messages (Book)
Topics: active listening, listening
Back to the search and topics
Belonging, friendship and support
Why we need each other, how friendships grow, and how support helps.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978) Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates (Hillsdale, NJ) · a book
Reported the Strange Situation studies of infants and mothers and described secure and insecure attachment patterns.
Strong evidence Foundational, widely replicated method.
Read more → search.worldcat.org
Where this shows up on the site: Your lens came from somewhere (Book: Know yourself) · Early bonds teach us what to expect (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging) · Going deeper: the research, in plain words (Guide: Where your lens came from) · How experiences shape our expectations (Guide: Know your own wiring) · Attachment theory (Library: How relationships work)
Topics: attachment
Asch, S. E. (1956) Studies of independence and conformity: I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority
Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 70(9, Whole No. 416), 1–70 · a study
When a group of actors all gave the same obviously wrong answer about line lengths, participants went along on about a third of answers; about a quarter never went along, and conformity fell sharply when one other person gave the right answer.
Moderate evidence Classic, much-repeated finding; levels vary with culture and era (see Bond & Smith, 1996).
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: We go along more than we think. (Book: Fitting in) · We go along more than we think (Book: Fitting in) · You can belong and still be yourself (Book: Fitting in)
Topics: belonging, conformity, groups
Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. M. (1991) Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(2), 226–244 · a study
Proposed and tested a four-category model of adult attachment (secure, preoccupied, dismissing and fearful).
Strong evidence Highly influential; later work favors dimensions over categories.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Adult attachment: anxious and avoidant patterns (Library: How relationships work)
Topics: attachment
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995) The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation
Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529 · a review of research
A major review arguing that the need to belong is a fundamental human motivation: people need frequent, pleasant contact within a few stable, caring relationships, and unmet belonging has wide emotional and cognitive costs.
Strong evidence Highly influential review.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Attachment, trust and belonging (Book) · Belonging is a basic need (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging) · Attachment, trust and belonging (Book) · Love comes in many forms (Book: Closeness and love) · The pull to fit in is old and strong (Book: Fitting in)
Topics: belonging, friendship
Bolger, N., Zuckerman, A., & Kessler, R. C. (2000) Invisible support and adjustment to stress
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(6), 953–961 · a study
In couples where one partner faced a stressful exam, support the recipient did not notice (reported by the giver but not the receiver) was linked with better adjustment, while noticed (visible) support was not.
Moderate evidence Diary study; later work shows effects depend on how support is given.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Fixing it for them can take away their power (Book: Helping others well) · Stress adds up, like a tank filling (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Supporting change in others (Book: Habits and change) · Advice or support? (Library: Talking and listening) · Other ideas like it, and how well they hold up (Guide: Love languages, in depth)
Topics: social support, quiet support, helping, change
Bond, R., & Smith, P. B. (1996) Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of studies using Asch's (1952b, 1956) line judgment task
Psychological Bulletin, 119(1), 111–137 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 133 studies in 17 countries using Asch’s task, conformity was a reliable effect but varied: it had declined in the United States since the 1950s and was higher in more collectivist cultures.
Strong evidence Large meta-analysis of a single, standard task.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: We go along more than we think. (Book: Fitting in) · We go along more than we think (Book: Fitting in)
Topics: belonging, conformity, culture
Boothby, E. J., Cooney, G., Sandstrom, G. M., & Clark, M. S. (2018) The liking gap in conversations: Do people like us more than we think?
Psychological Science, 29(11), 1742–1756 · a study
Across five studies, people underestimated how much their conversation partners liked them after first conversations; in first-year university roommates the gap lasted for most of the year.
Moderate evidence Five studies including lab and field samples; mostly students and adults in the US and UK.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Making and keeping friends as an adult (Guide: Living on your own, living well, in full) · The research behind this page (Guide: The logic behind it)
Topics: friendship, first impressions, loneliness
Bowlby, J. (1969) Attachment and Loss, Vol. 1: Attachment
Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis (London) / Basic Books (New York) · a book
The first volume of Bowlby's trilogy, setting out attachment theory: children's bond with caregivers is an evolved system for seeking safety and comfort.
Strong evidence Foundational theory, extensively supported in later research.
Read more → vufind.lboro.ac.uk
Where this shows up on the site: How closeness grows: what research says (Guide: Bonding) · Your lens came from somewhere (Book: Know yourself) · Early bonds teach us what to expect (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging) · What grief is, and what counts (Book: Loss, grief and big life changes) · The lens idea: understandings we carry forward (Guide: Where your lens came from)
Topics: attachment
Brady, W. J., Wills, J. A., Jost, J. T., and colleagues (2017) Emotion shapes the diffusion of moralized content in social networks
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(28), 7313–7318 · a study
In 563,312 social media posts about divisive political issues, each additional moral-emotional word was linked to about 20% more spread, mostly within like-minded networks rather than across them.
Moderate evidence Very large observational dataset from one platform and three issues.
Read more → csmapnyu.org
Where this shows up on the site: Online groups pull harder and faster. (Book: Fitting in) · Groups online (Book: Fitting in)
Topics: belonging, groups, online, emotional contagion
Brennan, K. A., Clark, C. L., & Shaver, P. R. (1998) Self-report measurement of adult attachment: An integrative overview
In J. A. Simpson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment Theory and Close Relationships (pp. 46–76). Guilford · a review of research
A large factor-analytic study of all known self-report adult attachment measures found that they reduce to two broad dimensions: attachment anxiety and avoidance.
Strong evidence The basis of the widely used two-dimension approach; self-report.
Read more → labs.psychology.illinois.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Patterns, not boxes (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging) · Adult attachment: anxious and avoidant patterns (Library: How relationships work)
Topics: attachment
Burger, J. M. (2009) Replicating Milgram: Would people still obey today?
American Psychologist, 64(1), 1–11 · a study
A safer partial replication with 70 adults, stopping at the learner’s first protest, found obedience rates only slightly lower than Milgram’s 45 years earlier; seeing another person refuse did not reduce obedience.
Moderate evidence Careful replication, but only of the first part of the procedure.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Authority can lead people a long way. (Book: Fitting in) · Authority can lead people a long way (Book: Fitting in)
Topics: belonging, obedience, groups
Cacioppo, J. T., & Patrick, W. (2008) Loneliness: Human Nature and the Need for Social Connection
W. W. Norton (New York) · a book
A book arguing that loneliness is a biological signal, like hunger, that we need connection, and that chronic loneliness can trap people in isolation and harm health.
Moderate evidence Popular book summarizing the authors' and others' research.
Read more → wellcomecollection.org
Where this shows up on the site: Feelings spread between people (Book: How feelings work) · Belonging is a basic need (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging) · Loneliness (Library: Kindness and connection) · Emotional contagion (Library: Feelings and emotions) · Alone is not the same as lonely (Guide: Living on your own, living well, in full)
Topics: loneliness
Coan, J. A., Schaefer, H. S., & Davidson, R. J. (2006) Lending a hand: Social regulation of the neural response to threat
Psychological Science, 17(12), 1032–1039 · a study
In an fMRI study, married women facing the threat of a mild shock showed less threat-related brain activity while holding their husband's hand than when alone.
Moderate evidence Small, much-cited brain-imaging study.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Stress is easier to carry when it’s shared (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Feeling safe with someone calms the body (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging) · Co-regulation: calming together (Library: Stress and the body) · Stress and the nervous system: the ladder, flooding, rest and recovery (Book) · The vagus nerve, and what helps (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: social support, attachment, stress, calming together, relationships
Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985) Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis
Psychological Bulletin, 98(2), 310–357 · a review of research
A review arguing that social support protects (buffers) people from the harmful effects of stress, especially perceived availability of support, alongside general main effects of being socially integrated.
Strong evidence Highly influential review; later tests are mixed in some settings.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Look after the hurt part of you (Book: Healing after hurt)
Topics: social support, stress, healing
Cruwys, T., Dingle, G. A., Haslam, C., and colleagues (2013) Social group memberships protect against future depression, alleviate depression symptoms and prevent depression relapse
Social Science & Medicine, 98, 179–186 · a study
In population data on adults aged 50 and over followed for two to four years, belonging to fewer groups predicted more depression later; among people already depressed, joining one group was linked to a 24% lower risk of relapse and joining three to a 63% lower risk.
Moderate evidence Large longitudinal samples, but observational, so links rather than proof.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Sleep, moving and people do a lot of the work. (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma) · Sleep, moving and people (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma) · You can belong and still be yourself (Book: Fitting in)
Topics: belonging, depression, groups, social support
Dunbar, R. I. M. (1992) Neocortex size as a constraint on group size in primates
Journal of Human Evolution, 22(6), 469–493 · a study
Across primates, typical group size was predicted by relative neocortex size rather than by ecological variables; extrapolating to humans gave a rough group size of about 150, the origin of 'Dunbar's number'.
Debated Influential; the human extrapolation has wide uncertainty and has been challenged (Lindenfors et al., 2021).
Read more → neuroscience.ox.ac.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Pillar V: Notice the quiet incentives (borrowed from behavioral economics) (Library: The science behind the program) · Kindness and connection and the Five Pillars (Library: Kindness and connection) · Making and keeping friends (Library: Kindness and connection) · Dunbar’s number and circles of friendship (Library: Kindness and connection)
Topics: friendship, Dunbar’s number
Epley, N., & Schroeder, J. (2014) Mistakenly seeking solitude
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(5), 1980–1999 · a study
Commuters asked to talk with a stranger on their train or bus reported a more positive journey than those told to sit in solitude, even though people predicted the opposite; misjudging how pleasant such talk would be keeps people apart.
Moderate evidence Field and lab experiments; replicated in later work.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Building connection from where you are (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging) · Weak ties and small everyday connections (Library: Kindness and connection) · Small talk and social scripts (Book: How communication works) · Making and keeping friends as an adult (Guide: Living on your own, living well, in full)
Topics: casual ties, friendship
Flynn, F. J., & Lake, V. K. B. (Bohns) (2008) "If you need help, just ask": Underestimating compliance with direct requests for help
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(1), 128–143 · a study
In five studies, people asking for help underestimated how many others would agree to a direct request, by as much as 50%, partly because they overlooked how awkward it feels to say no.
Strong evidence Replicated in later work by Bohns and colleagues.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Let other people help you too (Book: Helping others well)
Topics: social support, asking for help, helping
Fraley, R. C., Hudson, N. W., Heffernan, M. E., & Segal, N. (2015) Are adult attachment styles categorical or dimensional? A taxometric analysis of general and relationship-specific attachment orientations
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(2), 354–368 · a study
Taxometric analyses suggested that adult attachment differences are dimensional (degrees of anxiety and avoidance) rather than distinct types.
Strong evidence Large samples; consistent with the field's current consensus.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Patterns, not boxes (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging) · Adult attachment: anxious and avoidant patterns (Library: How relationships work) · Attachment, trust and belonging (Book) · Old maps show up in love (Book: Closeness and love)
Topics: attachment
Granovetter, M. S. (1973) The strength of weak ties
American Journal of Sociology, 78(6), 1360–1380 · a theory or model
Argued that weak ties (acquaintances) are valuable because they bridge between close-knit groups and carry new information, for example about jobs.
Strong evidence One of the most cited papers in sociology; supported by later work including a large 2022 experiment.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Weak ties and small everyday connections (Library: Kindness and connection)
Topics: casual ties, friendship
Hall, J. A. (2019) How many hours does it take to make a friend?
Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(4), 1278–1296 (online first 2018) · a study
Studies of adults who had recently moved and of students found that more hours spent together, especially in leisure, went with moving from acquaintance to closer friendship.
Moderate evidence Survey studies; hour estimates are rough.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: How closeness grows: what research says (Guide: Bonding) · Building connection from where you are (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging) · Making and keeping friends (Library: Kindness and connection) · Attachment, trust and belonging (Book) · Making and keeping friends as an adult (Guide: Living on your own, living well)
Topics: friendship
Haslam, S. A., & Reicher, S. D. (2012) Contesting the “nature” of conformity: What Milgram and Zimbardo's studies really show
PLoS Biology, 10(11), e1001426 · a theory or model
Argues that the Milgram and Stanford prison studies do not show blind obedience: people went along when they identified with the authority and believed the cause was right, a pattern the authors call engaged followership.
An idea, not a test An influential reinterpretation drawing on social identity research.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Authority can lead people a long way. (Book: Fitting in) · Authority can lead people a long way (Book: Fitting in)
Topics: belonging, obedience, groups
Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987) Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 511–524 · a study
Two questionnaire studies proposed that adult romantic love is an attachment process: the share of adults in each of three attachment styles roughly matched infant figures, and the styles differed in how people experienced love, their views of self and others, and recalled relationships with parents.
Strong evidence Landmark paper; self-report and cross-sectional.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Your lens came from somewhere (Book: Know yourself) · Patterns, not boxes (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging) · Adult attachment: anxious and avoidant patterns (Library: How relationships work) · Attachment, trust and belonging (Book) · Closeness and love: being known, at every age (Book)
Topics: attachment
Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., & Layton, J. B. (2010) Social relationships and mortality risk: A meta-analytic review
PLoS Medicine, 7(7), e1000316 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
A meta-analysis of 148 studies (308,849 participants) found people with stronger social relationships had about 50% greater odds of survival over the study periods, consistently across age, sex and health status.
Strong evidence Large meta-analysis of observational studies; causation not established.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Belonging is a basic need (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging) · Loneliness (Library: Kindness and connection) · Social support and wellbeing (Library: Kindness and connection) · Attachment, trust and belonging (Book) · Sleep, moving and people (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma)
Topics: social support, loneliness
Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., Baker, M., and colleagues (2015) Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: A meta-analytic review
Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 227–237 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
A meta-analysis linking loneliness, social isolation and living alone with a higher risk of earlier death.
Strong evidence Meta-analysis of observational studies.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Loneliness (Library: Kindness and connection) · When loneliness feels heavy (Guide: Living on your own, living well, in full)
Topics: loneliness
House, J. S. (1981) Work Stress and Social Support
Addison-Wesley (Reading, MA) · a book
A book on social support at work that distinguished emotional, instrumental, informational and appraisal support.
Moderate evidence Widely used framework.
Read more → libcat.library.tamu.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Ask what kind of help they want (Book: Helping others well) · Helping others well: support without fixing, boundaries, and not burning out (Book)
Topics: social support, helping
Kretzler, B., König, H.-H., & Hajek, A. (2022) Pet ownership, loneliness, and social isolation: a systematic review
Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 57, 1935–1957 · a review of research
Across 24 observational studies, adult pet owners were less socially isolated; only some studies found less loneliness.
Mixed evidence Observational studies with mixed results.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Pets (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Pets (Guide: Living on your own, living well, in full)
Topics: loneliness, belonging, pets, social isolation
Lindenfors, P., Wartel, A., & Lind, J. (2021) 'Dunbar's number' deconstructed
Biology Letters, 17(5), 20210158 · a study
Reanalysing primate brain and group-size data with modern methods gave estimates for human group size that varied widely with method and had very wide confidence intervals, so a specific figure like 150 is not supported.
Moderate evidence Methodological reanalysis; Dunbar and colleagues have disputed it.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Dunbar’s number and circles of friendship (Library: Kindness and connection)
Topics: Dunbar’s number
Liu, P. J., Rim, S., Min, L., & Min, K. E. (2023) The surprise of reaching out: Appreciated more than we think
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 124(4), 754–771 (online 2022) · a study
In a series of preregistered experiments, people who reached out to someone in their social circle (a short message, a note or a small gift) consistently underestimated how much the recipient appreciated it; the gap was larger when the contact was more surprising.
Moderate evidence To strong — many preregistered experiments with thousands of participants; mostly US adults and students.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Being the friend who always asks first (Guide: Living on your own, living well, in full)
Topics: friendship, reaching out, loneliness
Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1990) Procedures for identifying infants as disorganized/disoriented during the Ainsworth Strange Situation
In M. T. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti & E. M. Cummings (Eds.), Attachment in the Preschool Years (pp. 121–160). University of Chicago Press · a theory or model
Added a fourth attachment pattern, disorganized/disoriented, for infants who seemed frightened or confused by the caregiver in the Strange Situation, with indices for coding it.
Strong evidence Foundational coding system, widely used in later research.
Read more → chicagoreference.com
Where this shows up on the site: Early bonds teach us what to expect (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging)
Topics: attachment, family
Masi, C. M., Chen, H.-Y., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2011) A meta-analysis of interventions to reduce loneliness
Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15(3), 219–266 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
A meta-analysis of loneliness interventions; it is cited for finding that approaches targeting unhelpful social thinking (maladaptive social cognition) showed larger effects than other approaches, and for calling for better-controlled trials.
Strong evidence Meta-analysis, though many included studies were small.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Loneliness (Library: Kindness and connection) · When loneliness feels heavy (Guide: Living on your own, living well, in full)
Topics: loneliness
Milgram, S. (1963) Behavioral study of obedience
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(4), 371–378 · a study
Told by an experimenter to keep giving stronger electric shocks to a protesting learner (an actor; no shocks were real), 26 of 40 men continued to the highest level, many showing great distress.
Debated A famous result, partly replicated, but its procedure and meaning are disputed.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Authority can lead people a long way. (Book: Fitting in) · Authority can lead people a long way (Book: Fitting in)
Topics: belonging, obedience, groups
Nguyen, T. T., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2018) Solitude as an approach to affective self-regulation
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(1), 92–106 · a study
In four experiments, short spells of solitude lowered high-arousal feelings, both positive and negative, leaving people calmer; the effect needed actually being alone, and when people chose solitude it went with more relaxation and less stress.
Moderate evidence Four lab experiments with students; short solitude periods (about 15 minutes).
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Alone is not the same as lonely (Guide: Living on your own, living well, in full)
Topics: solitude, loneliness, emotion regulation
Office of the U.S. Surgeon General (Murthy, V. H.) (2023) Our Epidemic of Loneliness and Isolation: The U.S. Surgeon General's Advisory on the Healing Effects of Social Connection and Community
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services · a guideline or official report
A U.S. public-health advisory reporting that about half of U.S. adults experience measurable loneliness, linking poor social connection with higher risks of heart disease, stroke, dementia and early death, and proposing a national strategy to strengthen connection.
Strong evidence Official synthesis of research, though most underlying evidence is observational.
Read more → hhs.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Loneliness (Library: Kindness and connection) · When loneliness feels heavy (Guide: Living on your own, living well, in full)
Topics: loneliness
Oswald, D. L., Clark, E. M., & Kelly, C. M. (2004) Friendship maintenance: An analysis of individual and dyad behaviors
Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(3), 413–441 · a study
Three studies identified four kinds of friendship maintenance behavior (positivity, supportiveness, openness and interaction); best friends did more of them, and both friends' maintenance predicted satisfaction and commitment.
Moderate evidence Survey studies, mostly students.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Making and keeping friends (Library: Kindness and connection)
Topics: friendship, maintenance
Perry, G. (2013) Behind the Shock Machine: The Untold Story of the Notorious Milgram Psychology Experiments
Scribe (Melbourne, 2012); revised edition The New Press (New York, 2013) · a book
Drawing on Milgram’s archives and interviews with participants, argues that the procedure varied more than reported and that many participants doubted the shocks were real, which calls the famous 65% figure into question.
Debated Archival and journalistic critique; some reviewers questioned its objectivity.
Read more → sciencenews.org
Where this shows up on the site: Authority can lead people a long way (Book: Fitting in)
Topics: belonging, obedience, groups
Prentice, D. A., & Miller, D. T. (1993) Pluralistic ignorance and alcohol use on campus: Some consequences of misperceiving the social norm
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(2), 243–256 · a study
Students believed they were less comfortable with campus drinking than the average student; over time some men shifted their attitudes towards the imagined norm, and feeling out of step went with feeling alienated.
Moderate evidence Several studies at one university.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Norms are the rules nobody wrote down. (Book: Fitting in) · Norms are the rules nobody wrote down (Book: Fitting in)
Topics: belonging, norms, groups
Rajkumar, K., Saint-Jacques, G., Bojinov, I., and colleagues (2022) A causal test of the strength of weak ties
Science, 377(6612), 1304–1310 · a study
Randomized experiments on LinkedIn's 'People You May Know' feature, covering over 20 million users, found that moderately weak ties were most valuable for job mobility, with diminishing returns for the very weakest ties.
Strong evidence Large-scale randomized experiments, though on one platform.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Weak ties and small everyday connections (Library: Kindness and connection)
Topics: casual ties
Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., & Ferguson, M. L. (1978) Developing a measure of loneliness
Journal of Personality Assessment, 42(3), 290–294 · a study
Introduced the original 20-item UCLA Loneliness Scale, which showed high internal consistency and links with self-reported loneliness; it was later revised.
Strong evidence The most widely used loneliness measure (in revised forms).
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Loneliness (Library: Kindness and connection)
Topics: loneliness
Rutgers, A. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & van Berckelaer-Onnes, I. A. (2004) Autism and attachment: A meta-analytic review
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(6), 1123–1134 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 16 studies, about half of autistic children in Strange Situation studies were securely attached; autistic children were less often secure on average, but the difference disappeared in samples of children with higher mental development.
Moderate evidence Meta-analysis of small studies (287 children in the main analysis).
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Early bonds teach us what to expect (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging)
Topics: attachment, autism, neurodiversity
Sandstrom, G. M., & Dunn, E. W. (2014) Is efficiency overrated? Minimal social interactions lead to belonging and positive affect
Social Psychological and Personality Science, 5(4), 437–442 · a study
People who had a brief, friendly social exchange with a coffee-shop barista reported more belonging and positive mood than those who kept the exchange purely efficient.
Early evidence One small field experiment.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Building connection from where you are (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging) · Weak ties and small everyday connections (Library: Kindness and connection) · Attachment, trust and belonging (Book) · Small talk has a job, and it can be short. (Book: How communication works) · Small talk and social scripts (Book: How communication works)
Topics: casual ties, belonging
Sandstrom, G. M., & Dunn, E. W. (2014) Social interactions and well-being: The surprising power of weak ties
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40(7), 910–922 · a study
Students were happier and felt more belonging on days they interacted with more classmates than usual, and in community samples interactions with weak ties as well as close ties were linked with daily well-being.
Moderate evidence Diary studies, correlational.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Weak ties and small everyday connections (Library: Kindness and connection) · Making and keeping friends as an adult (Guide: Living on your own, living well, in full) · The research behind this page (Guide: The logic behind it)
Topics: casual ties, small talk, weak ties, belonging, wellbeing
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979) An integrative theory of intergroup conflict
In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 33–47). Brooks/Cole · a theory or model
Sets out social identity theory: part of our self-image comes from the groups we belong to, and we are motivated to see our groups positively, often by favouring them over others, even when groups are formed on trivial grounds.
Strong evidence Foundational theory with extensive later support.
Read more → alnap.org
Where this shows up on the site: “Us and them” forms fast. (Book: Fitting in) · “Us and them” forms fast (Book: Fitting in) · Fitting in isn’t belonging (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging)
Topics: belonging, groups, social identity
Williams, K. D., Cheung, C. K. T., & Choi, W. (2000) Cyberostracism: Effects of being ignored over the Internet
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 748–762 · a study
In an online ball-tossing game (1,486 people from 62 countries in the first study), being left out by computer-controlled “players” made people feel worse and lowered their sense of belonging.
Strong evidence Large samples; the Cyberball method has been widely replicated.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: The pull to fit in is old and strong. (Book: Fitting in) · The pull to fit in is old and strong (Book: Fitting in) · Belonging is a basic need (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging)
Topics: belonging, exclusion, loneliness
Back to the search and topics
Families, parents and children
Parenting, siblings, step-families, separation, and the rules families pass down.
Amato, P. R. (2001) Children of divorce in the 1990s: An update of the Amato and Keith (1991) meta-analysis
Journal of Family Psychology, 15(3), 355–370 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Updated a meta-analysis comparing children of divorced and continuously married parents; differences in wellbeing were small on average and persisted in studies from the 1990s.
Strong evidence Meta-analysis; correlational studies.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Two homes: co-parenting after a split (Book: Full tanks and different angles)
Topics: co-parenting, divorce, family
Baumrind, D. (1966) Effects of authoritative parental control on child behavior
Child Development, 37(4), 887–907 · a theory or model
Described authoritarian, authoritative and permissive styles of parental control, arguing for “authoritative” parenting that combines warmth with firm, explained limits.
Strong evidence As a framework — many studies link authoritative parenting with good outcomes, mostly in Western, middle-class samples.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Parenting styles (Library: Family, money and life changes)
Topics: parenting, parenting styles
Bryant, C. M., Conger, R. D., & Meehan, J. M. (2001) The influence of in-laws on change in marital success
Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(3), 614–626 · a study
Following couples for several years, found that conflict and poorer relationships with in-laws predicted later declines in marital success (stability, satisfaction and commitment).
Moderate evidence Longitudinal US sample; correlational.
Read more → jstor.org
Where this shows up on the site: In-laws and extended family (Library: Family, money and life changes) · Disagreeing about family and in-laws (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it) · Faith, culture and family voices (Book: Why we get out of tune)
Topics: in laws, family, relationships
Byng-Hall, J. (1995) Rewriting Family Scripts: Improvisation and Systems Change
Guilford Press · a book
Describes “family scripts” (repeated, often inherited patterns of interaction) and how families can rewrite them from a “secure family base”, drawing on attachment research.
Early evidence Clinical framework, supported more by clinical experience than experiments.
Read more → guilford.com
Where this shows up on the site: Family scripts and inherited patterns (Library: Family, money and life changes)
Topics: family scripts, family
Cowan, C. P., & Cowan, P. A. (1992) When Partners Become Parents: The Big Life Change for Couples
BasicBooks (New York); reissued 1999 (Erlbaum) and 2011 · a book
Based on the Becoming a Family Project, a long-term study of expectant couples, describes how strain and conflict between partners commonly rise across the transition to parenthood, and tests couples groups as prevention.
Moderate evidence Longitudinal study with a preventive intervention; modest sample.
Read more → openlibrary.org
Where this shows up on the site: The mental load: what research finds, and what it doesn’t (Book: The work nobody sees) · Small children and a new baby (Book: Is the split working?)
Topics: transition to parenthood, parenting, sharing housework
Doss, B. D., Rhoades, G. K., Stanley, S. M., & Markman, H. J. (2009) The effect of the transition to parenthood on relationship quality: An 8-year prospective study
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(3), 601–619 · a study
Following 218 couples over the first eight years of marriage, those who had a first child showed sudden declines in relationship quality after the birth, on average, compared with couples who did not.
Moderate evidence Strong longitudinal design; averages hide wide variation.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: When a baby arrives (Library: Family, money and life changes) · The mental load: what research finds, and what it doesn’t (Book: The work nobody sees) · Small children and a new baby (Book: Is the split working?)
Topics: transition to parenthood, parenting, relationships
Emery, R. E. (1982) Interparental conflict and the children of discord and divorce
Psychological Bulletin, 92(2), 310–330 · a review of research
Reviewed evidence that conflict between parents, in married and divorced families, is linked to children’s problems, and that the amount and type of conflict matter.
Strong evidence Classic review.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Two homes: co-parenting after a split (Book: Full tanks and different angles)
Topics: co-parenting, conflict, divorce
Feinberg, M. E. (2003) The internal structure and ecological context of coparenting: A framework for research and intervention
Parenting: Science and Practice, 3(2), 95–131 · a theory or model
Set out a framework for coparenting (how parents work together as parents) with components such as childrearing agreement, support versus undermining, division of labor, and joint family management.
Moderate evidence Influential framework that guided later trials.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Parenting as a team (Library: Family, money and life changes) · When a baby arrives (Library: Family, money and life changes)
Topics: co-parenting, parenting, family
Feinberg, M. E., & Kan, M. L. (2008) Establishing Family Foundations: Intervention effects on coparenting, parent/infant well-being, and parent-child relations
Journal of Family Psychology, 22(2), 253–263 · a study
A randomized trial with 169 expectant first-time couples found that the Family Foundations classes, delivered before and after birth, improved coparenting and some aspects of parent and infant wellbeing at follow-up.
Moderate evidence Randomized trial; later trials broadly supportive.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Parenting as a team (Library: Family, money and life changes) · When a baby arrives (Library: Family, money and life changes) · Small children and a new baby (Book: Is the split working?)
Topics: co-parenting, transition to parenthood, parenting
Ganong, L. H., & Coleman, M. (2017) Stepfamily Relationships: Development, Dynamics, and Interventions (2nd ed.)
Springer · a review of research
A research-based overview of stepfamily relationships, covering how they form and change, common dynamics, and interventions.
Strong evidence Scholarly synthesis by leading stepfamily researchers.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Stepfamilies and blended families (Library: Family, money and life changes)
Topics: stepfamilies, family
Hayslip, B., Jr., & Kaminski, P. L. (2005) Grandparents raising their grandchildren: A review of the literature and suggestions for practice
The Gerontologist, 45(2), 262–269 · a review of research
Reviewed research on custodial grandparents: the costs and benefits of raising a grandchild, how varied these families are, their need for social support, parenting, and help at several levels.
Moderate evidence A narrative review of mostly small and survey studies.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Raising a grandchild (kinship care) (Book: The monthly look-back)
Topics: kinship care, grandparents, family
Hetherington, E. M., & Kelly, J. (2002) For Better or For Worse: Divorce Reconsidered
W. W. Norton · a book
Drawing on long-term studies of about 1,400 families, argues that most children of divorce and remarriage turn out reasonably well, with outcomes varying widely.
Moderate evidence Large longitudinal programme; popular book that drew some controversy.
Read more → wwnorton.co.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Stepfamilies and blended families (Library: Family, money and life changes) · Two homes: co-parenting after a split (Book: Full tanks and different angles)
Topics: stepfamilies, divorce, family
Kerr, M. E., & Bowen, M. (1988) Family Evaluation: An Approach Based on Bowen Theory
W. W. Norton · a book
Explains Bowen family systems theory (differentiation, triangles, roles passed across generations) and how to evaluate a family as an emotional unit.
Debated Influential in family therapy; limited empirical testing.
Read more → find.library.upenn.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Write down the rulebook from home (Book: Know yourself) · Family systems and triangles (Library: Family, money and life changes) · Disagreeing about family and in-laws (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it)
Topics: family systems, family
Laursen, B., Coy, K. C., & Collins, W. A. (1998) Reconsidering changes in parent-child conflict across adolescence: A meta-analysis
Child Development, 69(3), 817–832 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Parent–child conflict became less frequent with age across adolescence, while the emotional intensity of conflicts rose from early to mid-adolescence.
Strong evidence Meta-analysis.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Talking with teenagers (Library: Family, money and life changes)
Topics: parenting, teenagers, conflict
Maccoby, E. E., & Martin, J. A. (1983) Socialization in the context of the family: Parent–child interaction
In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. 4: Socialization, Personality, and Social Development (pp. 1–102). Wiley · a review of research
A major review that recast parenting styles along two dimensions, responsiveness and demandingness, adding a neglectful/uninvolved style to Baumrind’s three.
Strong evidence As a framework — widely used; styles are broad descriptions rather than precise categories.
Read more → mpipsyl.disco.mpg.de
Where this shows up on the site: Parenting styles (Library: Family, money and life changes)
Topics: parenting, parenting styles
Maccoby, E. E., & Mnookin, R. H. (1992) Dividing the Child: Social and Legal Dilemmas of Custody
Harvard University Press · a book
Following more than a thousand separating families for three years, described three patterns of co-parenting among families where children spent time in both homes: cooperative, conflicted and disengaged; most parents avoided legal battles but many found it hard to cooperate.
Moderate evidence A large long-term study, from one US state.
Read more → hls.harvard.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Two homes: co-parenting after a split (Book: Full tanks and different angles)
Topics: co parenting, separation, family
Papernow, P. L. (2013) Surviving and Thriving in Stepfamily Relationships: What Works and What Doesn’t
Routledge · a book
Describes “stepfamily architecture” and five common challenges it creates, drawing on research and clinical experience; closeness between stepfamily members typically builds slowly.
Moderate evidence Practitioner synthesis of research and clinical experience, not a single study.
Read more → routledge.com
Where this shows up on the site: Stepfamilies and blended families (Library: Family, money and life changes) · Two homes: co-parenting after a split (Book: Full tanks and different angles)
Topics: stepfamilies, family, parenting
Pillemer, K. (2020) Fault Lines: Fractured Families and How to Mend Them
Avery (Penguin Random House) · a book
Draws on the Cornell Reconciliation Project, including a national survey on estrangement and interviews, to show family estrangement is more common than people assume and that some people reconcile.
Moderate evidence Survey plus interviews; popular book.
Read more → search.worldcat.org
Where this shows up on the site: Going back is a choice. Safety comes first. (Book: Healing after hurt) · Caring for ageing parents (Library: Family, money and life changes) · Raising a grandchild (kinship care) (Book: The monthly look-back)
Topics: family, estrangement, siblings
Roskam, I., Raes, M.-E., & Mikolajczak, M. (2017) Exhausted parents: Development and preliminary validation of the Parental Burnout Inventory
Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 163 · a study
Developed a 22-item Parental Burnout Inventory with three factors (exhaustion, inefficacy and emotional distancing from one’s children), only moderately related to job burnout, parenting stress and depression.
Early evidence A fast-growing field; measurement still being refined.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Burnout (Library: Stress and the body)
Topics: parental burnout, parenting, stress, burnout, helping
Twenge, J. M., Campbell, W. K., & Foster, C. A. (2003) Parenthood and marital satisfaction: A meta-analytic review
Journal of Marriage and Family, 65(3), 574–583 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across studies, parents reported lower marital satisfaction than non-parents, with the gap largest among mothers of infants.
Moderate evidence Meta-analysis of mostly cross-sectional studies; a later meta-analysis (Mitnick et al., 2009) found smaller effects.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: When a baby arrives (Library: Family, money and life changes)
Topics: transition to parenthood, parenting, relationships
Yavorsky, J. E., Kamp Dush, C. M., & Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J. (2015) The production of inequality: The gender division of labor across the transition to parenthood
Journal of Marriage and Family, 77(3), 662–679 · a study
Time-diary data from dual-earner couples showed a gender gap in total work opening up after a first baby: mothers took on most of the added childcare without cutting their paid hours; survey reports overstated how equal things were.
Moderate evidence Careful longitudinal design; small, highly educated US sample.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: One reading is a snapshot. A month of readings is a trend. (Book: Is the split working?) · The mental load: what the research says (Book: The work nobody sees) · The mental load: what research finds, and what it doesn’t (Book: The work nobody sees) · Small children and a new baby (Book: Is the split working?)
Topics: transition to parenthood, gender, time use, sharing housework
Back to the search and topics
How feelings work
Naming feelings, the body’s signals, and what helps feelings pass.
Bagby, R. M., Parker, J. D. A., & Taylor, G. J. (1994) The twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale—I. Item selection and cross-validation of the factor structure
Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 38(1), 23–32 · a study
Developed the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) and tested its three-factor structure in clinical and non-clinical groups.
Strong evidence The most widely used alexithymia measure, though self-report has limits.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Alexithymia: difficulty naming feelings (Library: Feelings and emotions)
Topics: emotions, alexithymia
Barrett, L. F., Gross, J., Conner, T. S., & Benvenuto, M. (2001) Knowing what you're feeling and knowing what to do about it: Mapping the relation between emotion differentiation and emotion regulation
Cognition and Emotion, 15(6), 713–724 · a study
In a diary study where people rated their emotions several times a day, those who distinguished their negative emotions more finely reported using more emotion-regulation strategies when feelings were intense.
Moderate evidence An influential study that started a large literature on emotional granularity; mostly correlational.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Emotional granularity (Library: Feelings and emotions)
Topics: emotions, emotional granularity
Barrett, L. F. (2017) The theory of constructed emotion: an active inference account of interoception and categorization
Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 12(1), 1–23 · a theory or model
Sets out the theory that the brain constantly predicts the body's needs and constructs emotions by making sense of body sensations using learned concepts.
Debated Influential and actively tested; basic-emotion researchers disagree.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Feelings start in the body (Book: How feelings work) · What emotions are: two views (Library: Feelings and emotions) · How feelings work: signals, the body, and naming what you feel (Book)
Topics: emotions, interoception
Barrett, L. F., Adolphs, R., Marsella, S., and colleagues (2019) Emotional expressions reconsidered: Challenges to inferring emotion from human facial movements
Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 20(1), 1–68 · a review of research
Concluded that facial movements are not reliable enough to infer a person's specific emotion across situations and cultures.
Debated A major review; basic-emotion researchers dispute parts of it.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: What emotions are: two views (Library: Feelings and emotions) · How feelings work: signals, the body, and naming what you feel (Book)
Topics: emotions
Bird, G., & Cook, R. (2013) Mixed emotions: The contribution of alexithymia to the emotional symptoms of autism
Translational Psychiatry, 3(7), e285 · a review of research
Argued that emotional difficulties seen in some autistic people are better explained by co-occurring alexithymia than by autism itself.
Moderate evidence An influential hypothesis with growing support; still being tested.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Naming a feeling helps you hold it (Book: How feelings work) · Autism and the double empathy problem (Book: Minds that work differently) · Chat analyzer (Guide) · Alexithymia (Guide: Wired Differently) · Minds that work differently (Book)
Topics: alexithymia, neurodiversity, autism
Bushman, B. J. (2002) Does venting anger feed or extinguish the flame? Catharsis, rumination, distraction, anger, and aggressive responding
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(6), 724–731 · a study
Angered people who hit a punching bag while thinking about the person who provoked them felt angrier afterwards than people who were distracted or did nothing.
Moderate evidence A single experiment, consistent with later meta-analytic work.
Read more → public.websites.umich.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Feeling it isn’t the same as doing it (Book: How feelings work) · Anger, and whether venting helps (Library: Feelings and emotions) · How feelings work: signals, the body, and naming what you feel (Book) · Anger: what it’s for and what to do with it (Book) · Letting rip doesn’t empty it (Book: Anger)
Topics: emotions, anger
Bushman, B. J., Bonacci, A. M., Pedersen, W. C., and colleagues (2005) Chewing on it can chew you up: Effects of rumination on triggered displaced aggression
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(6), 969–983 · a study
In three experiments, people who ruminated about a provocation, even for eight hours, were later more aggressive towards someone who only mildly annoyed them than people who were distracted.
Moderate evidence Three lab experiments with consistent results.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Anger: what it’s for and what to do with it (Book) · Letting rip doesn’t empty it (Book: Anger)
Topics: anger, rumination, emotions
Butler, E. A., Egloff, B., Wilhelm, F. H., and colleagues (2003) The social consequences of expressive suppression
Emotion, 3(1), 48–67 · a study
When one person hid their emotions while discussing an upsetting topic, communication suffered, their partner's blood pressure rose, and rapport and relationship formation were reduced.
Moderate evidence Two lab studies with unacquainted women.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Reappraisal versus suppression (Library: Feelings and emotions)
Topics: emotions, emotion regulation, relationships
Carver, C. S., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2009) Anger is an approach-related affect: Evidence and implications
Psychological Bulletin, 135, 183–204 · a review of research
A review of evidence that anger is usually an “approach” emotion: like eagerness, it moves people toward a goal or obstacle rather than away from it.
Moderate evidence Influential review; the approach view is debated (see replies in the same journal issue).
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Anger is a signal about something that matters (Book: Anger)
Topics: anger, emotions, motivation
Chida, Y., & Steptoe, A. (2009) The association of anger and hostility with future coronary heart disease: A meta-analytic review of prospective evidence
Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 53(11), 936–946 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Anger and hostility were linked with a modestly higher risk of later coronary heart disease events, in both initially healthy people and people with heart disease; the link was no longer significant in studies that controlled for behaviours such as smoking.
Moderate evidence Meta-analysis of long-term studies; associations, not proof of cause.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Anger: what it’s for and what to do with it (Book) · Anger rises in the body fast (Book: Anger)
Topics: anger, emotions, health
Craig, A. D. (2002) How do you feel? Interoception: the sense of the physiological condition of the body
Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3(8), 655–666 · a review of research
Described a pathway that carries signals about the body's internal state to the brain (including the insula), and proposed it underlies subjective feelings, emotion and self-awareness.
Strong evidence A foundational, widely cited review; some proposals remain theoretical.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Feelings start in the body (Book: How feelings work) · Interoception: noticing your body’s signals (Library: Stress and the body) · Feeling your body: interoception and alexithymia (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words) · The research behind this page (Guide: The logic behind it)
Topics: interoception, emotions
Del Vecchio, T., & O’Leary, K. D. (2004) Effectiveness of anger treatments for specific anger problems: A meta-analytic review
Clinical Psychology Review, 24(1), 15–34 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 23 controlled studies of adults with anger problems, anger treatments produced medium to large effects; cognitive approaches did well for long-standing (trait) anger, anger suppression and driving anger, and relaxation for in-the-moment anger.
Moderate evidence Meta-analysis of a modest number of studies.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: When to get more help (Book: Anger) · When anger becomes harm (Book: Anger)
Topics: anger, anger management, therapy
Dutton, D. G., & Aron, A. P. (1974) Some evidence for heightened sexual attraction under conditions of high anxiety
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30(4), 510–517 · a study
In a field study, men approached by an attractive female interviewer on a high, swaying suspension bridge were more likely to call her afterwards than men approached on a low, sturdy bridge; the authors read this as arousal from fear being mislabelled as attraction.
Debated A famous classic, but a replication by Kenrick and colleagues (1979) did not reproduce the attraction effect.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Feelings start in the body (Book: How feelings work)
Topics: emotions, interoception
Eisenberger, N. I., Lieberman, M. D., & Williams, K. D. (2003) Does rejection hurt? An fMRI study of social exclusion
Science, 302(5643), 290–292 · a study
Being left out of a virtual ball-tossing game increased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex, a region also involved in physical pain distress, in proportion to how upset people felt.
Debated Influential small brain-imaging study; how closely social and physical pain overlap is still argued.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Hurt is real, and healing takes time (Book: Healing after hurt) · Attachment, trust and belonging (Book)
Topics: emotions, healing, belonging
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1971) Constants across cultures in the face and emotion
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17(2), 124–129 · a study
In the Fore people of Papua New Guinea, who had seen little Western media, adults and children mostly matched short emotion stories to the same facial expressions that Western people chose. This was taken as evidence that a few facial expressions of emotion are shared across cultures.
Debated A classic, widely cited study; later critics (Russell 1994; Barrett and colleagues 2019) argue the method inflated agreement, and basic-emotion researchers dispute those critiques.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Feelings start in the body (Book: How feelings work) · What emotions are: two views (Library: Feelings and emotions) · How feelings work: signals, the body, and naming what you feel (Book)
Topics: emotions
Frattaroli, J. (2006) Experimental disclosure and its moderators: A meta-analysis
Psychological Bulletin, 132(6), 823–865 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Pooling 146 randomized studies, experimental disclosure (such as expressive writing) had a small but significant positive average effect.
Moderate evidence Real but small effect that varies by person and outcome.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: You can heal even if they never say sorry (Book: Healing after hurt) · Writing it down (Library: Feelings and emotions) · Healing after hurt: repair, forgiveness, and when to get help (Book) · Expressive writing (journaling) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Write it out (Guide: After a breakup)
Topics: emotions, expressive writing, healing
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001) The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions
American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226 · a theory or model
Proposed that positive emotions broaden attention and thinking and, over time, help build lasting personal resources.
Moderate evidence Influential, with experimental support for broadening; the separate "positivity ratio" claim was discredited.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Positive emotions: broaden and build (Library: Feelings and emotions)
Topics: emotions, positive emotions
Gross, J. J. (1998) The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review
Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299 · a review of research
Set out the process model of emotion regulation, with five points where emotion can be shaped: situation selection, situation modification, attention, cognitive change (reappraisal) and response modulation.
Strong evidence The dominant framework in emotion-regulation research.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Emotion regulation: Gross’s process model (Library: Feelings and emotions) · Anger: what it’s for and what to do with it (Book) · Step back and look from the outside (Book: Anger)
Topics: emotions, emotion regulation
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003) Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362 · a study
Across five studies, people who habitually reappraised had better emotional experience, relationships and well-being; habitual suppression was linked to worse outcomes.
Strong evidence Widely replicated, though costs of suppression vary across cultures.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Feeling it isn’t the same as doing it (Book: How feelings work) · Reappraisal versus suppression (Library: Feelings and emotions) · Letting rip doesn’t empty it (Book: Anger) · Step back and look from the outside (Book: Anger)
Topics: emotions, emotion regulation
Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. L. (1994) Emotional contagion
Cambridge University Press (Studies in Emotion and Social Interaction) · a book
Describes emotional contagion: people tend to mimic each other's faces, voices and postures, and that mimicry can shift their own feelings.
Moderate evidence Well supported face to face; online contagion effects are small.
Read more → catalogue.bnf.fr
Where this shows up on the site: Feelings spread between people (Book: How feelings work) · Emotional contagion (Library: Feelings and emotions) · How feelings work: signals, the body, and naming what you feel (Book)
Topics: emotions, emotional contagion
James, W. (1884) What is an emotion?
Mind, os-IX(34), 188–205 · a theory or model
James argued that bodily changes follow directly from perceiving something exciting, and that our feeling of those bodily changes is the emotion.
Debated A founding theory; challenged by Cannon and others, but body–feeling links remain central in emotion science.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Feelings start in the body (Book: How feelings work) · How feelings work: signals, the body, and naming what you feel (Book) · Anger rises in the body fast (Book: Anger)
Topics: emotions, interoception
Kashdan, T. B., Barrett, L. F., & McKnight, P. E. (2015) Unpacking emotion differentiation: Transforming unpleasant experience by perceiving distinctions in negativity
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24(1), 10–16 · a review of research
Reviewed research on emotion differentiation (emotional granularity): people who describe negative feelings in fine-grained ways tend to rely less on unhelpful coping such as binge drinking or aggression.
Moderate evidence Consistent findings, but mostly correlational.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: More words, better tools (Book: How feelings work) · Emotional granularity (Library: Feelings and emotions) · How feelings work: signals, the body, and naming what you feel (Book)
Topics: emotions, emotional granularity
Khalsa, S. S., Adolphs, R., Cameron, O. G., and colleagues (2018) Interoception and mental health: A roadmap
Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 3(6), 501–513 · a review of research
A consensus review from the 2016 Interoception Summit on how to measure interoception and study its role in mental health.
Moderate evidence Expert consensus; the field is still developing reliable measures.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Interoception: noticing your body’s signals (Library: Stress and the body) · Feeling your body: interoception and alexithymia (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: interoception, stress
Kinnaird, E., Stewart, C., & Tchanturia, K. (2019) Investigating alexithymia in autism: A systematic review and meta-analysis
European Psychiatry, 55, 80–89 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 15 studies, about half of autistic participants (around 50%) had high alexithymia compared with about 5% of comparison participants; alexithymia is common in autism but not universal.
Moderate evidence Consistent across studies, but based mostly on self-report questionnaires.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Alexithymia: difficulty naming feelings (Library: Feelings and emotions) · Anger often guards a softer feeling (Book: Anger) · Autistic (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Feeling your body: interoception and alexithymia (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words) · When feelings are hard to name (Book: Know yourself)
Topics: alexithymia, neurodiversity, autism
Kircanski, K., Lieberman, M. D., & Craske, M. G. (2012) Feelings into words: Contributions of language to exposure therapy
Psychological Science, 23(10), 1086–1091 · a study
Spider-fearful people who described their feelings in words while near a live spider showed lower skin-conductance arousal a week later than people who reappraised, distracted themselves or had exposure alone; self-reported fear did not differ between groups.
Early evidence A single small experiment.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Naming a feeling helps you hold it (Book: How feelings work)
Topics: emotions, affect labeling
Kjærvik, S. L., & Bushman, B. J. (2024) A meta-analytic review of anger management activities that increase or decrease arousal: What fuels or douses rage?
Clinical Psychology Review (April 2024) · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 154 studies, activities that calm the body (such as slow breathing, relaxation and mindfulness) reduced anger and aggression, while arousal-increasing activities showed little or no benefit.
Moderate evidence A large meta-analysis; the authors say more research is needed. DOI not confirmed in search, so the link is the university news release.
Read more → news.osu.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Anger, and whether venting helps (Library: Feelings and emotions) · Anger: what it’s for and what to do with it (Book) · In the hot minutes: slow the body first (Book: Anger)
Topics: emotions, anger, calm
Kramer, A. D. I., Guillory, J. E., & Hancock, J. T. (2014) Experimental evidence of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks
PNAS, 111(24), 8788–8790 · a study
Changing how many positive or negative posts Facebook users saw slightly shifted the emotional tone of their own posts.
Debated Very small effects, and the journal published an editorial expression of concern about consent.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Emotional contagion (Library: Feelings and emotions)
Topics: emotions, emotional contagion
Kross, E., Ayduk, O., & Mischel, W. (2005) When asking “why” does not hurt: Distinguishing rumination from reflective processing of negative emotions
Psychological Science, 16(9), 709–715 · a study
After recalling an anger-provoking experience, people who asked why they felt as they did from a self-distanced perspective showed less emotional reactivity than those who relived it through their own eyes.
Moderate evidence Two experiments; later work by the same group has supported self-distancing.
Read more → rascl.studentorg.berkeley.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Step back and look from the outside (Book: Anger)
Topics: anger, emotion regulation, self distancing
Leary, M. R., Springer, C., Negel, L., and colleagues (1998) The causes, phenomenology, and consequences of hurt feelings
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(5), 1225–1237 · a study
Hurt feelings were triggered by events that signalled relational devaluation (feeling less valued by someone), usually by people the person knew well.
Moderate evidence Retrospective accounts; widely supported idea.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Hurt is real, and healing takes time (Book: Healing after hurt)
Topics: emotions, healing
Levant, R. F., Hall, R. J., Williams, C. M., & Hasan, N. T. (2009) Gender differences in alexithymia
Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 10(3), 190–203 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
A meta-analysis of 41 samples found that men scored slightly higher than women on alexithymia (difficulty identifying and describing feelings), but the difference was small.
Moderate evidence A meta-analysis with a consistent but small effect; self-report measures.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: When feelings weren’t talked about (Book: How feelings work)
Topics: emotions, alexithymia, gender, men
Lieberman, M. D., Eisenberger, N. I., Crockett, M. J., and colleagues (2007) Putting feelings into words: Affect labeling disrupts amygdala activity in response to affective stimuli
Psychological Science, 18(5), 421–428 · a study
In a brain-imaging study, labelling the emotion in a picture reduced amygdala and other limbic responses compared with other ways of processing the image.
Moderate evidence Replicated lab finding; effects are modest and mostly measured with pictures in the lab.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Retuning, step by step (Book: Why we get out of tune) · If only one of you is on board (Book: Two kinds of fair) · Know your load and your state before you speak (Book: Know yourself) · Naming a feeling helps you hold it (Book: How feelings work) · Naming feelings: affect labeling (Library: Feelings and emotions)
Topics: emotions, affect labeling
Matsumoto, D., Yoo, S. H., & Nakagawa, S. (2008) Culture, emotion regulation, and adjustment
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(6), 925–937 · a study
Across 23 countries, cultures that placed more value on social order and hierarchy tended to report more suppression of emotions; cultures valuing individual autonomy and egalitarianism reported less.
Moderate evidence Large cross-cultural survey; country-level correlations, self-report.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: When feelings weren’t talked about (Book: How feelings work)
Topics: emotions, culture, emotion regulation
Mischkowski, D., Kross, E., & Bushman, B. J. (2012) Flies on the wall are less aggressive: Self-distancing “in the heat of the moment” reduces aggressive thoughts, angry feelings and aggressive behavior
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · a study
After being provoked, people who reflected on the moment from a distanced, “fly on the wall” view felt less angry and behaved less aggressively than people who relived it from their own point of view.
Moderate evidence Lab experiments with students.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Anger: what it’s for and what to do with it (Book) · Step back and look from the outside (Book: Anger)
Topics: anger, emotion regulation, self distancing
Mostofsky, E., Penner, E. A., & Mittleman, M. A. (2014) Outbursts of anger as a trigger of acute cardiovascular events: A systematic review and meta-analysis
European Heart Journal, 35(21), 1404–1410 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across nine case-crossover studies, the rate of heart attacks, strokes and arrhythmias was higher in the two hours after an outburst of anger than at other times, especially for people already at high risk.
Moderate evidence Consistent results across studies; based on patients’ recall of recent anger.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Anger rises in the body fast (Book: Anger)
Topics: anger, emotions, health
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991) Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes
Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100(4), 569–582 · a theory or model
Proposed the response styles theory: people who ruminate on their low mood tend to have longer depressions than people who distract themselves.
Strong evidence Extensive, consistent later research.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Plan inside your circle, and budget your energy (Book: Know yourself) · Hurt is real, and healing takes time (Book: Healing after hurt) · Owning it, repairing it, letting it rest (Book: Self-worth, shame and self-compassion) · Rumination and co-rumination (Library: Feelings and emotions)
Topics: emotions, rumination
Pennebaker, J. W., & Beall, S. K. (1986) Confronting a traumatic event: Toward an understanding of inhibition and disease
Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95(3), 274–281 · a study
An early expressive-writing experiment in which students wrote about traumatic experiences over several days; it launched decades of research on whether writing about difficult experiences helps health and well-being.
Moderate evidence Launched a large literature; later meta-analyses find small average benefits.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Write down the rulebook from home (Book: Know yourself) · Naming a feeling helps you hold it (Book: How feelings work) · You can heal even if they never say sorry (Book: Healing after hurt) · Resilience, support and stuck grief (Book: Loss, grief and big life changes) · Writing it down (Library: Feelings and emotions)
Topics: emotions, expressive writing, healing
Rose, A. J. (2002) Co-rumination in the friendships of girls and boys
Child Development, 73(6), 1830–1843 · a study
In 608 school students, co-rumination (repeatedly going over problems with a friend) was linked both to closer friendships and to more depression and anxiety symptoms; girls co-ruminated more.
Moderate evidence Replicated mostly with adolescents; correlational.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Rumination and co-rumination (Library: Feelings and emotions)
Topics: emotions, rumination
Saini, M. (2009) A meta-analysis of the psychological treatment of anger: Developing guidelines for evidence-based practice
Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 37(4), 473–488 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 96 studies and 139 treatment effects, psychological treatments for anger (such as CBT, skills training and relaxation) were generally effective, with considerable variation between treatments and studies.
Moderate evidence Large meta-analysis; varied study quality and settings.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: When anger becomes harm (Book: Anger) · Questions people often ask (Book: Anger)
Topics: anger, therapy, anger management
Schachter, S., & Singer, J. (1962) Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state
Psychological Review, 69(5), 379–399 · a study
Proposed the two-factor theory: an emotion is physical arousal plus a label we give it from the situation.
Debated The original experiment has not replicated well, though the broad idea is still influential.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Feelings start in the body (Book: How feelings work)
Topics: emotions, interoception
Schwarz, N., & Clore, G. L. (1983) Mood, misattribution, and judgments of well-being: Informative and directive functions of affective states
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(3), 513–523 · a study
People in a good mood (including people phoned on sunny days) rated their happiness and life satisfaction higher. A bad mood stopped lowering their ratings once their attention was drawn to an outside cause, such as the weather.
Moderate evidence A classic demonstration of "feelings as information"; later large studies found the weather effect on life satisfaction to be very small.
Read more → worlddatabaseofhappiness.eur.nl
Where this shows up on the site: A feeling is a signal, not a verdict (Book: How feelings work) · Emotional reasoning (Library: Thinking traps)
Topics: emotions, feelings as information
Sifneos, P. E. (1973) The prevalence of "alexithymic" characteristics in psychosomatic patients
Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 22(2–6), 255–262 · a study
Introduced the term "alexithymia" for difficulty finding words for feelings, along with a limited fantasy life, and found these traits more often in psychosomatic patients than in controls.
Early evidence Small clinical sample; historically important as the origin of the term.
Read more → karger.com
Where this shows up on the site: Alexithymia: difficulty naming feelings (Library: Feelings and emotions) · When feelings are hard to name (Book: Know yourself)
Topics: emotions, alexithymia
Torre, J. B., & Lieberman, M. D. (2018) Putting feelings into words: Affect labeling as implicit emotion regulation
Emotion Review, 10(2), 116–124 · a review of research
Reviewed evidence that naming a feeling can reduce its intensity even though it does not feel like regulating it at the time.
Moderate evidence Consistent lab evidence; the authors say understanding of how it works is still early.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Naming a feeling helps you hold it (Book: How feelings work) · Naming feelings: affect labeling (Library: Feelings and emotions)
Topics: emotions, affect labeling
Verduyn, P., & Lavrijsen, S. (2015) Which emotions last longest and why: The role of event importance and rumination
Motivation and Emotion, 39(1), 119–127 · a study
Of 27 emotions studied, sadness lasted longest, while shame, surprise, fear and disgust were among the shortest; long-lasting emotions tended to follow important events and involve rumination.
Moderate evidence A single self-report study, consistent with other duration research.
Read more → ppw.kuleuven.be
Where this shows up on the site: Feelings rise and pass like waves; moods are weather (Book: How feelings work)
Topics: emotions, rumination
Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. R., & White, T. L. (1987) Paradoxical effects of thought suppression
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(1), 5–13 · a study
People asked not to think of a white bear kept thinking of it, suggesting that trying to suppress a thought can backfire.
Moderate evidence Classic, widely replicated in broad form; size of the rebound varies.
Read more → dtg.sites.fas.harvard.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Feelings come in layers (Book: How feelings work) · How feelings work: signals, the body, and naming what you feel (Book)
Topics: emotions, thought suppression
Back to the search and topics
Stress, calm and rest
What stress does to the body and mind, and what helps people settle.
Arnsten, A. F. T. (2009) Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function
Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10(6), 410–422 · a review of research
Reviewed evidence that stress chemicals rapidly weaken the prefrontal cortex, which supports planning and flexible thinking, while strengthening more habitual responses.
Strong evidence Well-established neuroscience, much of it from animal studies.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: When you’re flooded, thinking goes offline (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Stress and the nervous system: the ladder, flooding, rest and recovery (Book)
Topics: stress, flooding
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007) The job demands-resources model: State of the art
Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(3), 309–328 · a theory or model
A review of the job demands-resources model: high job demands drive strain and burnout, while job resources such as support, control and feedback drive motivation and help buffer demands.
Strong evidence One of the most widely used models in work psychology.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Stress depends on what you have to meet it (Book: Stress and the nervous system)
Topics: stress, work
Balban, M. Y., Neri, E., Kogon, M. M., and colleagues (2023) Brief structured respiration practices enhance mood and reduce physiological arousal
Cell Reports Medicine, 4(1), 100895 · a study
In a month-long randomized trial of five minutes a day, breathing exercises improved mood more than mindfulness meditation, with cyclic sighing (long out-breaths) showing the largest benefits.
Early evidence A single remote trial; needs replication.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Settle the body first (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Box breathing (Library: Calm and attention) · The long exhale and cyclic sighing (Library: Calm and attention) · Cyclic sighing (the double sigh) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: stress, calm, breathing
Ben Simon, E., & Walker, M. P. (2018) Sleep loss causes social withdrawal and loneliness
Nature Communications · a study
After a night without sleep, young adults kept an approaching person at a greater distance and felt lonelier, with brain changes linked to social avoidance; rested people who briefly watched them felt lonelier too.
Early evidence Small experimental samples (18 in the main scanning study), one lab.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Sleep and stress feed each other. (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Sleep and stress feed each other (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Routines and rhythms for one (Guide: Living on your own, living well, in full) · Sleep and moving (Guide: After a breakup) · Sleep and moving (Guide: After a breakup)
Topics: sleep, stress, loneliness, connection
Borkovec, T. D., Wilkinson, L., Folensbee, R., & Lerman, C. (1983) Stimulus control applications to the treatment of worry
Behaviour Research and Therapy, 21(3), 247–251 · a study
People who described themselves as worriers and were taught to postpone worry to a set time and place each day reported less daily worry after four weeks than people given no treatment.
Early evidence Two small early studies; the method is now part of many CBT programmes.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Give worry a time and a place. (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma) · Give worry a time and a place (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma)
Topics: anxiety, stress, worry, rumination
Butler, E. A., & Randall, A. K. (2013) Emotional coregulation in close relationships
Emotion Review, 5(2), 202–210 · a review of research
Defined emotional coregulation as a two-way link between partners' emotional states that helps keep both of them steady.
Moderate evidence Conceptual review of mostly small lab studies.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Co-regulation: calming together (Library: Stress and the body) · Calming together (co-regulation) (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: stress, calming together, relationships
Coan, J. A., & Sbarra, D. A. (2015) Social baseline theory: The social regulation of risk and effort
Current Opinion in Psychology, 1, 87–91 · a theory or model
Proposes that the brain expects to have supportive people around, which lowers perceived risk and effort; without them, coping takes more effort.
Moderate evidence A theory supported by a growing set of mostly small studies.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Feeling safe with someone calms the body (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging) · Co-regulation: calming together (Library: Stress and the body) · Calming together (co-regulation) (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: stress, calming together
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983) A global measure of perceived stress
Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396 · a study
Introduced the Perceived Stress Scale, a short questionnaire about how unpredictable, uncontrollable and overloaded your life has felt lately; scores went with symptoms of depression and illness.
Strong evidence One of the most widely used stress questionnaires.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Leftover stress (how full your tank is) (Book: Is the split working?) · The stress-tank score, step by step (Book: Full tanks and different angles)
Topics: stress, measurement
Craske, M. G., Treanor, M., Conway, C. C., and colleagues (2014) Maximizing exposure therapy: An inhibitory learning approach
Behaviour Research and Therapy, 58, 10–23 · a review of research
Describes exposure therapy for anxiety as building new learning that competes with old fear, and sets out ways to strengthen it, such as testing specific expectations, dropping safety behaviours and practising in varied settings.
Moderate evidence Theory-led clinical review drawing on lab and treatment research.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Avoiding keeps fear going. (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma) · Avoiding keeps fear going (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma)
Topics: anxiety, stress, exposure, avoidance
Ekers, D., Webster, L., Van Straten, A., and colleagues (2014) Behavioural activation for depression; an update of meta-analysis of effectiveness and sub group analysis
PLoS ONE, 9(6), e100100 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 26 randomised trials (1,524 people), behavioural activation, planning and doing small valued activities, reduced depression more than control conditions, and at least as much as medication in the four trials that compared them.
Moderate evidence Consistent effects, but most studies were small or low quality with short follow-up.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Doing often comes before feeling better. (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma) · Doing often comes before feeling better (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma)
Topics: stress, depression, behavioural activation, change
Ekholm, B., Spulber, S., & Adler, M. (2020) A randomized controlled study of weighted chain blankets for insomnia in psychiatric disorders
Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 16(9), 1567–1577 · a study
In 120 adults with insomnia and depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety or ADHD, four weeks with a weighted chain blanket reduced insomnia more than a light blanket.
Early evidence One randomized trial with self-reported outcomes.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Weighted blanket (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: sleep, complementary health
Fang, Y., Forger, D. B., Frank, E., and colleagues (2021) Day-to-day variability in sleep parameters and depression risk: a prospective cohort study of training physicians
npj Digital Medicine, 4 · a study
In 2,115 first-year doctors wearing sleep trackers, more day-to-day variation in sleep went with more depressive symptoms, and steadier sleep with better next-day mood.
Moderate evidence A large prospective study; it shows a link, not a cause.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: A regular sleep schedule (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The vagus nerve, and what helps (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: sleep
Freeman, D., Sheaves, B., et al. (2017) The effects of improving sleep on mental health (OASIS): A randomised controlled trial with mediation analysis
The Lancet Psychiatry, 4(10), 749–758 · a study
In 3,755 university students with insomnia, an online CBT course for sleep greatly reduced insomnia and also reduced paranoid thoughts and hallucinatory experiences compared with usual care, with better sleep explaining much of the change.
Strong evidence Very large randomised trial; students only, so results may not apply to everyone.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Sleep, moving and people do a lot of the work. (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma) · Sleep, moving and people (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma)
Topics: sleep, stress, depression, anxiety
Goessl, V. C., Curtiss, J. E., & Hofmann, S. G. (2017) The effect of heart rate variability biofeedback training on stress and anxiety: a meta-analysis
Psychological Medicine, 47(15), 2578–2586 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 24 studies (484 people), training with heart-rate variability biofeedback reduced self-reported stress and anxiety, a large effect compared with controls; more well-controlled trials are needed.
Moderate evidence A meta-analysis of mostly small studies.
Read more → cambridge.org
Where this shows up on the site: Heart rate variability biofeedback (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The vagus nerve, and what helps (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: stress, anxiety, breathing
Gordon, A. M., & Chen, S. (2014) The role of sleep in interpersonal conflict: Do sleepless nights mean worse fights?
Social Psychological and Personality Science, 5(2), 168–175 · a study
In a 14-day daily study, people reported more conflict with their partner after poor nights of sleep, and conflicts were resolved best when both partners were well rested.
Moderate evidence Diary and lab evidence; correlational in part.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Sleep, mood and conflict (Library: Stress and the body) · Sleep and stress feed each other. (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Sleep and stress feed each other (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Anger often guards a softer feeling (Book: Anger) · The research behind this page (Guide: The logic behind it)
Topics: stress, sleep, relationships
Gringras, P., Green, D., Wright, B., et al. (2014) Weighted blankets and sleep in autistic children: a randomized controlled trial
Pediatrics, 134(2), 298–306 · a study
In 67 autistic children, a weighted blanket did not lengthen sleep or change other sleep measures compared with a normal blanket, though children and parents preferred it.
Moderate evidence A careful randomized crossover trial.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Weighted blanket (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Autistic (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: sleep, autism, sensory
Grossman, P., & Taylor, E. W. (2007) Toward understanding respiratory sinus arrhythmia: Relations to cardiac vagal tone, evolution and biobehavioral functions
Biological Psychology, 74(2), 263–285 · a review of research
Raised caveats about using respiratory sinus arrhythmia as an index of vagal tone and challenged evolutionary assumptions used in polyvagal theory.
Strong evidence A detailed physiological critique.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Polyvagal theory, and the criticisms (Library: Stress and the body) · Polyvagal theory, honestly (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words) · The vagus nerve, and what helps (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: stress, polyvagal theory
Grossman, P. (2023) Fundamental challenges and likely refutations of the five basic premises of the polyvagal theory
Biological Psychology, 180, 108589 · a review of research
Reviewed the evidence for each of polyvagal theory's five basic premises and argued that each is untenable or highly implausible.
Debated A strong critique; Porges and colleagues have responded.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Polyvagal theory, and the criticisms (Library: Stress and the body) · Polyvagal theory, honestly (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: stress, polyvagal theory
Hofmann, S. G., Asnaani, A., Vonk, I. J. J., and colleagues (2012) The efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy: A review of meta-analyses
Cognitive Therapy and Research, 36(5), 427–440 · a review of research
Reviewing 106 meta-analyses of cognitive behavioural therapy, found the strongest support for anxiety problems, bulimia, anger and general stress, with support across many other problems; few studies looked at groups such as ethnic minorities or people on low incomes.
Strong evidence A review of many meta-analyses; quality of the underlying trials varies.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Talking therapies help many people, and medicines can too. (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma) · Talking therapies and medicines (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma)
Topics: anxiety, stress, therapy, depression
Jamieson, J. P., Nock, M. K., & Mendes, W. B. (2012) Mind over matter: Reappraising arousal improves cardiovascular and cognitive responses to stress
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141(3), 417–422 · a study
People told to see their stress arousal as helpful showed healthier cardiovascular responses and less attention to negative information than control groups.
Moderate evidence Replicated in several studies, with modest effects.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Stress depends on what you have to meet it (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Stress appraisal: why the same event stresses people differently (Library: Stress and the body)
Topics: stress
Jungmann, M., et al. (2018) Effects of cold stimulation on cardiac-vagal activation in healthy participants: randomized controlled trial
JMIR Formative Research, 2(2), e10257 · a study
In 61 healthy adults, cold applied to the side of the neck slowed the heart rate and raised heart rate variability, a sign of increased activity in the calming (vagal) branch.
Early evidence One laboratory study in healthy volunteers.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Cold water on your face (the dive reflex) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The vagus nerve, and what helps (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: stress, calm
Kanner, A. D., Coyne, J. C., Schaefer, C., & Lazarus, R. S. (1981) Comparison of two modes of stress measurement: Daily hassles and uplifts versus major life events
Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4(1), 1–39 · a study
Everyday hassles predicted psychological symptoms better than major life events did, and still did after life events were taken into account.
Moderate evidence A classic study; many later studies support the importance of daily hassles.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Stress adds up, like a tank filling (Book: Stress and the nervous system)
Topics: stress
Kaplan, S. (1995) The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework
Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15(3), 169–182 · a theory or model
Set out attention restoration theory: effortful, directed attention gets fatigued, and environments such as nature, which hold attention effortlessly, help it recover; the paper links this with stress recovery.
Moderate evidence Supported by many studies, though effects vary and some measures replicate poorly.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Rest isn’t one thing (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Attention restoration and nature (Library: Calm and attention)
Topics: stress, rest
Kessler, R. C., et al. (2017) Trauma and PTSD in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys
European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(sup5), 1353383 · a study
In surveys of 68,894 adults in 24 countries, about 70% reported at least one traumatic event in their lives (3.2 on average); events involving interpersonal violence, such as sexual assault, carried the highest risk of PTSD.
Strong evidence Very large cross-national surveys; based on what people recalled and reported.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Trauma is about what happened, and what it left behind. (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma) · What trauma is, and what it isn’t (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma)
Topics: stress, trauma, ptsd
Klevebrant, L., et al. (2022) Effects of caffeine on anxiety and panic attacks in patients with panic disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis
General Hospital Psychiatry, 74, 22–31 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
In caffeine challenge studies, about half of people with panic disorder had a panic attack after a large dose of caffeine (400 mg or more), compared with very few healthy people and none after placebo.
Moderate evidence A meta-analysis of small lab studies using high doses.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Less caffeine (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Anxiety or OCD (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: anxiety
Koenen, K. C., et al. (2017) Posttraumatic stress disorder in the World Mental Health Surveys
Psychological Medicine, 47(13), 2260–2274 · a study
Across 26 surveys with 71,083 adults, lifetime PTSD was found in 3.9% of everyone and 5.6% of people exposed to trauma; about half of those with PTSD had lasting symptoms, and treatment-seeking was much lower in poorer countries.
Strong evidence Very large cross-national surveys; self-report diagnostic interviews.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: What trauma is, and what it isn’t (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma)
Topics: stress, trauma, ptsd
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984) Stress, appraisal, and coping
Springer Publishing, New York · a book
Set out the appraisal model: stress depends on judging whether something threatens you and whether you can cope; it also distinguished problem-focused from emotion-focused coping.
Strong evidence One of the most influential frameworks in stress research.
Read more → wellcomecollection.org
Where this shows up on the site: Plan inside your circle, and budget your energy (Book: Know yourself) · Put your effort where it can land (Book: Values, meaning and a good life) · Stress depends on what you have to meet it (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Stress appraisal: why the same event stresses people differently (Library: Stress and the body) · Stress and the nervous system: the ladder, flooding, rest and recovery (Book)
Topics: stress, values
Leikas, S., & Ilmarinen, V.-J. (2017) Happy now, tired later? Extraverted and conscientious behavior are related to immediate mood gains, but to later fatigue
Journal of Personality, 85(5), 603–615 · a study
In a 12-day experience-sampling study, acting extraverted went with better mood at the time but more fatigue about three hours later, for introverts and extraverts alike.
Early evidence Small sample (48 people); the authors called for replication.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Rest isn’t one thing (Book: Stress and the nervous system)
Topics: stress, rest, personality
MacCormack, J. K., & Lindquist, K. A. (2018) Feeling hangry? When hunger is conceptualized as emotion
Emotion (advance online publication, June 2018; DOI 10.1037/emo0000422) · a study
Hunger made people judge things more negatively in negative situations, and in the lab hungry people felt worse and judged a researcher more harshly, but mainly when they were not paying attention to their own feelings.
Early evidence A few experiments; the authors argue hunger alone is not enough to cause "hangriness".
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Hunger and mood (Library: Stress and the body) · The research behind this page (Guide: The logic behind it)
Topics: stress, emotions
Manzoni, G. M., Pagnini, F., Castelnuovo, G., & Molinari, E. (2008) Relaxation training for anxiety: a ten-years systematic review with meta-analysis
BMC Psychiatry, 8, 41 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 27 studies of relaxation training (progressive relaxation, autogenic training, applied relaxation and meditation), anxiety fell by a medium-to-large amount; many studies were not randomized.
Moderate evidence A meta-analysis including uncontrolled studies.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Progressive muscle relaxation (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: anxiety, calm
Masten, A. S. (2001) Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development
American Psychologist, 56(3), 227–238 · a review of research
Concluded that resilience is common and usually arises from ordinary human adaptive systems, such as relationships; the main threats are things that damage those systems.
Strong evidence Influential review of developmental research.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Hard and adverse experiences (Guide: Know your own wiring) · Resilience (Library: Feelings and emotions)
Topics: resilience
McEwen, B. S., & Stellar, E. (1993) Stress and the individual: Mechanisms leading to disease
Archives of Internal Medicine, 153(18), 2093–2101 · a theory or model
Introduced "allostatic load": the cumulative wear and tear on the body from repeated or chronic stress responses.
Moderate evidence A widely used framework; there is no single agreed way to measure it.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Stress adds up, like a tank filling (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Stress and the nervous system: the ladder, flooding, rest and recovery (Book)
Topics: stress, allostatic load
McEwen, B. S. (1998) Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators
New England Journal of Medicine, 338(3), 171–179 · a review of research
Explained how the same stress hormones that protect us in the short term cause wear and tear (allostatic load) when stress systems are chronically over- or under-active.
Strong evidence Highly influential review.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Allostatic load: the cost of carrying stress (Library: Stress and the body) · Worry and anxiety are the body’s alarm (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma) · The stress response: fast and slow (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: stress, allostatic load
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2011) Generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder in adults: management (CG113)
NICE guideline (updated 2020) · a guideline or official report
Recommends stepped care: self-help first, then CBT or applied relaxation (or medicine) for generalized anxiety, and CBT for panic disorder.
Strong evidence A national guideline based on reviews of trials.
Read more → nice.org.uk
Where this shows up on the site: CBT for anxiety and panic (talking therapy) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: anxiety, complementary health
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2013) Social anxiety disorder: recognition, assessment and treatment (CG159)
NICE guideline · a guideline or official report
Recommends individual CBT developed specifically for social anxiety for adults with social anxiety disorder.
Strong evidence A national guideline based on reviews of trials.
Read more → nice.org.uk
Where this shows up on the site: CBT for anxiety and panic (talking therapy) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: anxiety, complementary health
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2018) Post-traumatic stress disorder (NG116)
NICE guideline · a guideline or official report
Recommends trauma-focused CBT for adults with PTSD, and EMDR for adults with PTSD more than three months after a non-combat trauma.
Strong evidence A national guideline based on reviews of trials.
Read more → nice.org.uk
Where this shows up on the site: EMDR (for trauma) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: anxiety, complementary health, trauma
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2022) Depression in adults: treatment and management (NG222)
NICE guideline NG222, London · a guideline or official report
The NHS guideline for England on depression: recommends a choice of treatments made together with the person, including guided self-help, group or individual CBT and behavioural activation, group exercise, other talking therapies and antidepressants.
Strong evidence An official guideline based on systematic reviews; some methods have been criticised.
Read more → nice.org.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Talking therapies help many people, and medicines can too. (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma) · Talking therapies and medicines (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma) · Low mood and depression (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma)
Topics: stress, depression, therapy
National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) (2022) I’m so stressed out! Fact sheet
NIMH · a guideline or official report
Stress is usually a response to an outside cause and fades when it ends; anxiety can continue without a threat. If symptoms won’t go away or interfere with daily life, it may be time to talk to a professional.
Moderate evidence Official advice.
Read more → nimh.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: The stress response: fast and slow (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words) · When to see a doctor (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: stress, anxiety
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) (ongoing) Mental health issues: alcohol use disorder and common co-occurring conditions
NIAAA Core Resource on Alcohol · a guideline or official report
Alcohol may seem to relieve anxiety in the short term, but over time heavy drinking and repeated withdrawal can make anxiety and drinking worse.
Moderate evidence An official summary of research.
Read more → niaaa.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Less alcohol (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: anxiety, stress
NHS (National Health Service, England) (ongoing) Dissociative disorders
NHS website (nhs.uk) · a guideline or official report
Describes depersonalisation and derealisation; a GP may examine you and do tests to check for other causes, then refer you to a mental health specialist.
Moderate evidence Official advice.
Read more → nhs.uk
Where this shows up on the site: When to see a doctor (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: stress
NHS (National Health Service, England) (ongoing) Panic disorder
NHS website (nhs.uk) · a guideline or official report
See a GP if you have symptoms of panic disorder; they may examine you to rule out other conditions that could cause the symptoms.
Moderate evidence Official advice.
Read more → nhs.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Browse every option, by condition or neurotype (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · When to see a doctor (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: anxiety
Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust (ongoing) Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)
OHSPIC (NHS) · a guideline or official report
The evidence-based psychological treatment for OCD is individual CBT including exposure and response prevention (ERP) with a therapist.
Moderate evidence NHS service guidance reflecting national guidelines.
Read more → oxfordhealth.nhs.uk
Where this shows up on the site: CBT for anxiety and panic (talking therapy) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Anxiety or OCD (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: anxiety
Qaseem, A., Kansagara, D., et al. (2016) Management of chronic insomnia disorder in adults: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians
Annals of Internal Medicine · a guideline or official report
Recommends cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) as the first treatment for all adults with chronic insomnia (a strong recommendation based on moderate-quality evidence).
Strong evidence A national guideline based on a systematic review of trials.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Start here: before any supplement (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · CBT for insomnia (CBT-I) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The most useful studies to read (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: sleep, complementary health
Rose, S., Bisson, J., Churchill, R., & Wessely, S. (2002) Psychological debriefing for preventing post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, CD000560 · a review of research
Found no evidence that a single session of psychological debriefing after trauma prevented PTSD, and some evidence it may increase the risk for some people; the authors advised that compulsory debriefing should stop.
Moderate evidence Systematic review of 15 trials, many of poor quality.
Read more → cochrane.org
Where this shows up on the site: After something frightening: safety, choice and no pressure. (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma) · After something frightening: safety, choice and no pressure (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma)
Topics: stress, trauma, ptsd
Siegel, D. J. (1999) The developing mind: Toward a neurobiology of interpersonal experience
Guilford Press · a book
A book linking attachment, memory and brain development; it introduced the "window of tolerance", the range of arousal in which a person can feel strong emotion and still think and respond flexibly.
An idea, not a test A widely used clinical metaphor rather than a tested construct.
Read more → catalog.library.nashville.org
Where this shows up on the site: The ladder: three everyday states (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · The window of tolerance (Library: Stress and the body) · The window of tolerance, and the ladder (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: stress, window of tolerance, trauma
Sonnentag, S., & Fritz, C. (2007) The Recovery Experience Questionnaire: Development and validation of a measure for assessing recuperation and unwinding from work
Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12(3), 204–221 · a study
Identified four separate recovery experiences outside work: psychological detachment, relaxation, mastery and control.
Strong evidence Widely used measure; recovery research is extensive and consistent.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Rest isn’t one thing (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Breaks and recovery (Library: Calm and attention) · Stress and the nervous system: the ladder, flooding, rest and recovery (Book)
Topics: stress, rest, work
StatPearls, NCBI Bookshelf (ongoing) Neuroanatomy, cranial nerve 10 (vagus nerve)
StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) · a review of research
The vagus nerve is the longest cranial nerve, carrying both sensory and motor fibres from the brainstem to the heart, lungs and gut.
Strong evidence A standard medical reference.
Read more → ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: The vagus nerve, and what helps (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: calm, polyvagal theory
StatPearls, NCBI Bookshelf (ongoing) Physiology, autonomic nervous system
StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) · a review of research
The autonomic nervous system controls organs automatically; its sympathetic and parasympathetic branches work in opposition to keep the body in balance, with a third, enteric, branch in the gut.
Strong evidence A standard medical reference.
Read more → ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: What your nervous system does (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: stress, calm
StatPearls, NCBI Bookshelf (ongoing) Physiology, stress reaction
StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) · a review of research
The stress response has a fast arm (sympathetic nerves and adrenaline) and a slower arm (the HPA axis and cortisol), working together with the immune system.
Strong evidence A standard medical reference.
Read more → ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: The stress response: fast and slow (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: stress
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) (2014) SAMHSA's concept of trauma and guidance for a trauma-informed approach
HHS Publication No. (SMA) 14-4884, Rockville, MD · a guideline or official report
Sets out a working definition of trauma and six principles for trauma-informed services: safety; trustworthiness and transparency; peer support; collaboration; empowerment, voice and choice; and cultural, historical and gender issues.
An idea, not a test An official framework based on expert consensus, not a test of outcomes.
Read more → ncsacw.acf.hhs.gov
Where this shows up on the site: After something frightening: safety, choice and no pressure. (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma) · After something frightening: safety, choice and no pressure (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma)
Topics: stress, trauma, trauma informed care
Swami, V., Hochstöger, S., Kargl, E., & Stieger, S. (2022) Hangry in the field: An experience sampling study on the impact of hunger on anger, irritability, and affect
PLOS ONE, 17(7), e0269629 · a study
Over 21 days, 64 adults reported more anger and irritability and less pleasure when they felt hungrier, even after accounting for factors like age, sex and trait anger.
Early evidence A single, fairly small experience-sampling study.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Hunger and mood (Library: Stress and the body) · Steady meals (not getting too hungry) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: stress, emotions
Taylor, S. E., Klein, L. C., Lewis, B. P., and colleagues (2000) Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight
Psychological Review, 107(3), 411–429 · a theory or model
Proposed that under stress people, perhaps especially women, often respond by protecting others and seeking social connection ("tend and befriend"), not only fight or flight.
Moderate evidence Influential theory with supporting evidence; sex differences are debated.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Stress is your body getting ready (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · The stress response (Library: Stress and the body) · Fight, flight, freeze and “fawn” (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: stress
The Conversation (2023) What is fawning? How is it related to trauma and the fight-or-flight response?
The Conversation · a news report
The word “fawn” was introduced by therapist Pete Walker in his 2013 book on complex PTSD to describe people-pleasing as a response to threat; there isn’t yet much research on it.
An idea, not a test A popular clinical idea, not yet tested much.
Read more → theconversation.com
Where this shows up on the site: Fight, flight, freeze and “fawn” (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: stress, trauma
Weitzberg, E., & Lundberg, J. O. N. (2002) Humming greatly increases nasal nitric oxide
American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 166(2), 144–145 · a study
In 10 healthy people, humming raised nitric oxide in the nose about 15-fold compared with quiet breathing out, by improving air exchange with the sinuses.
Early evidence One small physiology study about the sinuses, not about calm.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Humming and singing (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: breathing
Yerkes, R. M., & Dodson, J. D. (1908) The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation
Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, 18(5), 459–482 · a study
Studied how the strength of an electric shock affected how quickly dancing mice learned to avoid a black passage; later writers turned it into a general "inverted U" for arousal and performance.
Debated The original was an animal study; the popular human "law" is an oversimplification.
Read more → psychclassics.yorku.ca
Where this shows up on the site: Stress depends on what you have to meet it (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Arousal and performance: the inverted U (Library: Stress and the body)
Topics: stress
Yoo, S.-S., Gujar, N., Hu, P., and colleagues (2007) The human emotional brain without sleep—a prefrontal amygdala disconnect
Current Biology, 17(20), R877–R878 · a study
After a night without sleep, the amygdala reacted more strongly to negative pictures and was less connected to the prefrontal cortex.
Moderate evidence A small lab study, consistent with later sleep research.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: How stress changes your frequency (Book: Why we get out of tune) · Stress adds up, like a tank filling (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Sleep, mood and conflict (Library: Stress and the body) · Stress and the nervous system: the ladder, flooding, rest and recovery (Book) · Sleep and stress feed each other. (Book: Stress and the nervous system)
Topics: stress, sleep
Zaccaro, A., Piarulli, A., Laurino, M., and colleagues (2018) How breath-control can change your life: A systematic review on psycho-physiological correlates of slow breathing
Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 12, 353 · a review of research
Slow breathing was linked with changes in heart-rate variability and with more comfort, relaxation and alertness and less arousal and anxiety.
Moderate evidence Consistent direction, but many included studies were small.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Settle the body first (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Slow breathing (Library: Calm and attention) · Stress and the nervous system: the ladder, flooding, rest and recovery (Book) · Start here: before any supplement (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Slow breathing (about six breaths a minute) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: stress, calm, breathing
Back to the search and topics
Supplements, herbs and other approaches
What research says about calming supplements, herbs and other things people try for stress, sleep and low mood, and how to use them safely.
Agha-Hosseini, M., Kashani, L., Aleyaseen, A., et al. (2008) Crocus sativus L. (saffron) in the treatment of premenstrual syndrome: a double-blind, randomised and placebo-controlled trial
BJOG, 115(4), 515–519 · a study
In a small Iranian trial (about 50 women over two cycles), saffron capsules reduced premenstrual symptoms and low mood more than a dummy pill.
Early evidence One small randomized trial.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Saffron (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs
Akhgarjand, C., Asoudeh, F., Bagheri, A., et al. (2022) Does Ashwagandha supplementation have a beneficial effect on the management of anxiety and stress? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
Phytotherapy Research, 36(11), 4115–4124 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Pooling small trials, ashwagandha lowered stress and anxiety scores compared with a dummy pill, but the anxiety result was not robust when one trial was left out.
Early evidence Small, short trials.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Ashwagandha (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, anxiety
Artukoglu, B. B., Beyer, C., Zuloff-Shani, A., and colleagues (2017) Efficacy of palmitoylethanolamide for pain: a meta-analysis
Pain Physician, 20(5), 353–362 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across eight controlled trials, PEA reduced pain more than inactive comparisons; the trials were few, varied and often poor quality, and side effects were poorly reported.
Early evidence A small meta-analysis of mostly low-quality trials.
Read more → painphysicianjournal.com
Where this shows up on the site: PEA (palmitoylethanolamide) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements
Baziar, S., et al. (2019) Crocus sativus L. versus methylphenidate in treatment of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a randomized, double-blind pilot study
Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 29(3), 205–212 · a study
In a six-week pilot of 54 children with ADHD, saffron and methylphenidate gave similar improvements in parent and teacher ratings; there was no placebo group.
Early evidence One small pilot without a placebo group.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Saffron (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, ADHD
Benjamin, J., Levine, J., Fux, M., and colleagues (1995) Double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial of inositol treatment for panic disorder
American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(7), 1084–1086 · a study
In 21 people with panic disorder, four weeks of high-dose inositol (12 g a day) cut the number and severity of panic attacks more than a dummy powder, with few side effects.
Early evidence One small, short study.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Inositol (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, anxiety
Boyle, N. B., Lawton, C., & Dye, L. (2017) The effects of magnesium supplementation on subjective anxiety and stress: A systematic review
Nutrients, 9(5), 429 · a review of research
Of eight studies of magnesium and anxiety, four found a benefit. The authors called the evidence suggestive for people prone to anxiety, but of poor quality.
Early evidence Poor-quality evidence, by the authors’ own judgement.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Magnesium (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, anxiety
Brock, C., Whitehouse, J., Tewfik, I., & Towell, T. (2014) American skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora): a randomised, double-blind placebo-controlled crossover study of its effects on mood in healthy volunteers
Phytotherapy Research, 28(5), 692–698 · a study
In a two-week crossover trial in 43 healthy volunteers, the authors reported that American skullcap may improve mood and anxiety in some people, without notable side effects.
Early evidence One small trial in healthy volunteers.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Skullcap (American skullcap) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs
Dold, M., Bartova, L., Volz, H.-P., and colleagues (2023) Efficacy of Silexan in patients with anxiety disorders: a meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials
European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 273(7), 1615–1628 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Pooling all five placebo-controlled trials of the lavender oil capsule Silexan (1,213 adult outpatients, 10 weeks), anxiety scores fell more than on a dummy pill. All five trials were sponsored by the maker.
Moderate evidence Five randomized trials pooled, all funded by the manufacturer; results apply only to this product.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Lavender capsules (Silexan) and smelling it (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The most useful studies to read (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, anxiety
Eckert and colleagues (2025) Creatine supplementation for treating symptoms of depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis
British Journal of Nutrition (published online November 2025) · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 11 trials (1,093 people), creatine did slightly better than placebo for depression, but the average effect was below what patients would notice and the evidence was very low certainty, with signs of bias.
Early evidence Very low certainty evidence; the true effect may be trivial or none.
Read more → cambridge.org
Where this shows up on the site: Creatine (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements
Fernandes, B. S., et al. (2016) N-acetylcysteine in depressive symptoms and functionality: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 77(4), e457–e466 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Five trials (574 people) found N-acetylcysteine eased depressive symptoms a little more than a dummy pill, with only minor side effects. The trials covered a mix of conditions.
Early evidence Few trials, mixed groups of people.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: N-acetylcysteine (NAC) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, supplements
Ghazizadeh et al. (2021) The effects of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) on depression and anxiety in clinical trials: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Phytotherapy Research, 35(12), 6690–6705 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Pooled trials found lemon balm lowered anxiety and depression scores compared with a dummy pill, with no serious side effects reported. The studies differed a lot, so the authors urged caution.
Early evidence Few, varied trials.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Lemon balm (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, anxiety
Ghazizadeh-Hashemi, M., et al. (2018) Palmitoylethanolamide as adjunctive therapy in major depressive disorder: a double-blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial
Journal of Affective Disorders, 232, 127–133 · a study
In a six-week trial of 58 people with major depression taking citalopram, adding PEA improved depression scores more than adding a dummy pill.
Early evidence One small randomized trial.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: PEA (palmitoylethanolamide) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements
Gillies, D., Leach, M. J., & Perez Algorta, G. (2023) Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 4 · a review of research
There was little evidence that omega-3 or omega-6 supplements improve ADHD symptoms in children and teens; the trials were small, varied and short.
Strong evidence A Cochrane review; the conclusion is that there is little benefit.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Omega-3 (fish oil) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · ADHD (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, ADHD
Goyal, M., et al. (2014) Meditation programs for psychological stress and well-being: A systematic review and meta-analysis
JAMA Internal Medicine, 174(3), 357–368 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 47 trials (3,515 people), mindfulness programs gave small improvements in anxiety, depression and pain. They were not better than other active treatments such as exercise.
Moderate evidence Careful review; effects were small.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Mindfulness and meditation (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The most useful studies to read (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, calm, anxiety
Gringras, P., Nir, T., Breddy, J., and colleagues (2017) Efficacy and safety of pediatric prolonged-release melatonin for insomnia in children with autism spectrum disorder
Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(11), 948–957 · a study
In a 13-week trial of 125 children (autistic, or with Smith-Magenis syndrome) with insomnia, a prescription prolonged-release melatonin helped them sleep longer and fall asleep sooner than a dummy pill.
Moderate evidence One randomized, placebo-controlled trial, funded by the maker; long-term data come from follow-up studies.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Melatonin (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Autistic (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, sleep, autism
Harvey, A. L., Young, L. C., Viljoen, A. M., & Gericke, N. P. (2011) Pharmacological actions of the South African medicinal and functional food plant Sceletium tortuosum and its principal alkaloids
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 137(3), 1124–1129 · a study
In lab tests, a standard sceletium extract blocked the serotonin transporter (as SSRI antidepressants do) and the enzyme PDE4.
Early evidence Laboratory study, not in people.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Sceletium (kanna) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs
Herrera-Arellano, A., Jiménez-Ferrer, J. E., Zamilpa, A., Tortoriello, J., et al. (2012) Therapeutic effectiveness of Galphimia glauca vs. lorazepam in generalized anxiety disorder: a controlled 15-week clinical trial
Planta Medica, 78(14), 1529–1535 · a study
In a 15-week double-blind trial, people with generalized anxiety improved about as much on a standard Galphimia glauca extract as on lorazepam, with fewer side effects; the trials come from the group that developed the extract.
Early evidence Trials from one research group, not independently repeated.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Galphimia (Galphimia glauca) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, anxiety
Jamshidi, N., & Cohen, M. M. (2017) The clinical efficacy and safety of tulsi in humans: A systematic review of the literature
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2017, 9217567 · a review of research
A review of 24 studies of holy basil (tulsi) reported good results for blood sugar, blood pressure and psychological stress, with no significant side effects. The studies were mostly small, and the authors asked for more research on dose and form.
Early evidence Small, varied studies.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Holy basil (tulsi) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, stress
Janssen, C. W., et al. (2016) Whole-body hyperthermia for the treatment of major depressive disorder: a randomized clinical trial
JAMA Psychiatry, 73(8), 789–795 · a study
In 30 adults with depression, one session of medical whole-body heating reduced depression scores more than a sham treatment over six weeks.
Early evidence One small randomized trial.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Heat (sauna, warm baths) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: complementary health
Kalman, D. S., et al. (2008) Effect of a proprietary Magnolia and Phellodendron extract on stress levels in healthy women: a pilot, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial
Nutrition Journal, 7, 11 · a study
In a six-week pilot (26 women completed), a magnolia-and-phellodendron blend reduced short-term (state) anxiety more than a dummy pill, but not long-standing anxiety, depression, sleep or cortisol.
Early evidence One small pilot of a combination product.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Magnolia bark (with phellodendron) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, stress
Kavirajan, H. C., Lueck, K., & Chuang, K. (2014) Alternating current cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES) for depression
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, CD010521.pub2 · a review of research
Found no high-quality trials of cranial electrotherapy stimulation for acute depression, so there was insufficient evidence on whether it works.
Early evidence No good trials found.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Cranial electrotherapy devices (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: complementary health
Kotera, Y., Richardson, M., & Sheffield, D. (2022) Effects of shinrin-yoku (forest bathing) and nature therapy on mental health: A systematic review and meta-analysis
International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 20, 337–361 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Twenty studies found time in forests and nature therapy eased depression, anxiety and anger in the short term, with the biggest effect on anxiety. The authors asked for more rigorous, longer studies.
Early evidence Short-term effects, mixed study quality.
Read more → repository.derby.ac.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Time in nature (“forest bathing”) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, stress, nature
Kuyken, W., et al. (2016) Efficacy of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy in prevention of depressive relapse: an individual patient data meta-analysis from randomized trials
JAMA Psychiatry, 73(6), 565–574 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across nine trials (1,258 people with recurrent depression), mindfulness-based cognitive therapy cut the risk of relapse over 60 weeks by about 31% (38% relapsed versus 49%).
Strong evidence An individual-patient meta-analysis of randomized trials.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Mindfulness and meditation (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: complementary health
Kyrou, I., et al. (2017) Effects of a hops (Humulus lupulus L.) dry extract supplement on self-reported depression, anxiety and stress levels in apparently healthy young adults: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, crossover pilot study
Hormones, 16(2), 171–180 · a study
In a crossover pilot, 36 young adults with mild stress, anxiety or low mood reported lower scores after four weeks of hops extract than after a dummy pill; morning cortisol did not change.
Early evidence One small pilot study.
Read more → publications.aston.ac.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Hops (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, stress
Lin, H.-H., Tsai, P.-S., Fang, S.-C., & Liu, J.-F. (2011) Effect of kiwifruit consumption on sleep quality in adults with sleep problems
Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 20(2), 169–174 · a study
24 adults with sleep problems who ate two kiwis an hour before bed for four weeks fell asleep faster and slept longer; there was no comparison group.
Early evidence One small study without a control group.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Kiwi fruit before bed (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, sleep
Liu, R. T., Walsh, R. F. L., & Sheehan, A. E. (2019) Prebiotics and probiotics for depression and anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials
Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 102, 13–23 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 34 trials, prebiotics did no better than a dummy pill for depression or anxiety. Probiotics showed small effects, mostly in people with a diagnosed condition.
Mixed evidence Small effects, and the best strains and doses are unknown.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Probiotics (“psychobiotics”) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, supplements
LiverTox, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (US) (ongoing) Ashwagandha
LiverTox: Clinical and research information on drug-induced liver injury (NCBI Bookshelf) · a review of research
Liver injury has been reported in people taking products labelled as ashwagandha, usually 2 to 12 weeks after starting. Most cases were mild to moderate and got better, but rare cases of liver failure have been described.
Moderate evidence Case reports show it can happen, not how often.
Read more → ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Ashwagandha (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, supplement safety
LiverTox, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (US) (ongoing) Skullcap
LiverTox (NCBI Bookshelf) · a guideline or official report
Liver injury has been reported with products containing skullcap, sometimes leading to liver failure; most cases involved several herbs, and some products were adulterated with germander, a known liver toxin.
Moderate evidence Case reports collected by the NIH liver-injury database.
Read more → ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Skullcap (American skullcap) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, supplement safety
Mah, J., & Pitre, T. (2021) Oral magnesium supplementation for insomnia in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis
BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Three small trials (151 older adults) found people fell asleep about 17 minutes sooner on magnesium than on a dummy pill, with no clear change in total sleep; the evidence was low to very low quality.
Early evidence Three small trials at moderate to high risk of bias.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Magnesium (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, sleep
Mao, J. J., et al. (2016) Long-term chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) treatment for generalized anxiety disorder: A randomized clinical trial
Phytomedicine, 23(14), 1735–1742 · a study
People with generalized anxiety who improved on chamomile were then given either chamomile or a dummy pill. Fewer relapsed on chamomile, but the difference was not statistically clear; symptoms stayed lower on chamomile.
Early evidence One trial with 93 people in the randomized part.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Chamomile (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, anxiety
Marx, W., et al. (2019) Effect of saffron supplementation on symptoms of depression and anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Nutrition Reviews, 77(8), 557–571 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 23 trials, saffron eased depression and anxiety symptoms more than a dummy pill. The authors found signs that unhelpful results may be missing, and most trials came from one region.
Early evidence Large effects in small trials usually shrink with better studies.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Saffron (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The most useful studies to read (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, anxiety
Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA), UK (ongoing) Introduction of the Traditional Herbal Registration certification mark
Drug Safety Update (GOV.UK) · a guideline or official report
The THR mark shows a herbal medicine is registered with the UK regulator. Registration needs evidence of safety, quality and long traditional use for minor conditions, not clinical trials showing it works.
Strong evidence Official description of the scheme.
Read more → gov.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Staying safe (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, regulation
MedlinePlus, US National Library of Medicine (ongoing) 5-HTP
MedlinePlus herbs and supplements · a guideline or official report
Some people taking 5-HTP developed eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome (EMS), though it isn’t known whether 5-HTP or a contaminant caused it; it should not be combined with antidepressants or carbidopa, and should be avoided in pregnancy.
Moderate evidence An official safety summary.
Read more → medlineplus.gov
Where this shows up on the site: 5-HTP (5-hydroxytryptophan) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, supplement safety
MedlinePlus, US National Library of Medicine (ongoing) L-tryptophan
MedlinePlus herbs and supplements · a guideline or official report
In 1989 an outbreak of eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome was traced mostly to L-tryptophan from one manufacturer; there is little reliable information on safety beyond 3 weeks, and it interacts with antidepressants.
Moderate evidence An official safety summary.
Read more → medlineplus.gov
Where this shows up on the site: L-tryptophan (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, supplement safety
Menon and colleagues (2025) Benefits, side effects, and uses of Hericium erinaceus as a supplement: a systematic review
Frontiers in Nutrition · a review of research
Human research on lion’s mane is a handful of small trials, mostly on thinking and memory; mood benefits come mainly from animal studies, and the safety profile still needs establishing.
Early evidence Few small human trials.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Lion’s mane (mushroom) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements
Mukai, T., Kishi, T., Matsuda, Y., & Iwata, N. (2014) A meta-analysis of inositol for depression and anxiety disorders
Human Psychopharmacology, 29(1), 55–63 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Pooling the small trials, inositol did not clearly beat a dummy pill for depression, anxiety or obsessive-compulsive symptoms; there were weak hints of benefit in depression.
Mixed evidence Very few, small trials.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Inositol (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, anxiety
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) (ongoing) ADHD and complementary health approaches: What the science says
NCCIH Clinical Digest · a review of research
Summarises the research on complementary approaches for ADHD: omega-3 helps little if at all and less than medicine; melatonin may help sleep problems in children with ADHD; ginkgo and St John’s wort have not been shown to help.
Moderate evidence An official summary of reviews and trials.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: St John’s wort (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Melatonin (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Omega-3 (fish oil) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Ginkgo (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · ADHD (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, ADHD, complementary health
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) (ongoing) Acupuncture: Effectiveness and safety
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
Summarises research on acupuncture; results for anxiety are mixed and many studies are of poor quality, and it is generally safe with a qualified practitioner using sterile needles.
Mixed evidence Studies disagree and many are low quality.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Acupuncture (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: complementary health
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) (ongoing) Asian ginseng: Usefulness and safety
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
Evidence on Asian ginseng for tiredness is mixed; short-term use seems safe for most people, insomnia is the most common side effect, and it may lower blood sugar and interact with some medicines.
Moderate evidence An official summary of research.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Asian ginseng (Korean ginseng, Panax) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) (ongoing) Autism spectrum disorder and complementary health approaches: What the science says
NCCIH Clinical Digest · a review of research
Melatonin has evidence for sleep problems in autism; there isn’t enough evidence that omega-3 helps; secretin, chelation, hyperbaric oxygen and antifungals don’t help and may be dangerous; music therapy may help social interaction.
Moderate evidence An official summary of reviews and trials; some of the research is older.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Omega-3 (fish oil) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Music (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Autistic (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The most useful studies to read (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, autism, complementary health
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) (ongoing) Black cohosh: Usefulness and safety
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
Black cohosh may help hot flushes but not anxiety or low mood, and studies disagree; rare but serious liver damage has been reported with products labelled as black cohosh, and some contain the wrong herb.
Mixed evidence Studies disagree.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Black cohosh (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, supplement safety
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) (ongoing) Chasteberry: Usefulness and safety
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
Low to moderate quality studies suggest chasteberry might reduce PMS symptoms such as breast pain; it is generally well tolerated short term but may not be safe in pregnancy or with hormone-sensitive conditions.
Early evidence Low to moderate quality studies.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Chasteberry (vitex) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) (ongoing) Ginkgo: Usefulness and safety
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
Ginkgo has not been shown to prevent dementia or help several other conditions; leaf extract is likely safe in moderate amounts, but it may raise bleeding risk with blood thinners, and the raw seeds are poisonous.
Moderate evidence An official summary of research.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Ginkgo (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, supplement safety
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) (ongoing) S-Adenosyl-L-Methionine (SAMe): In depth
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
At least 40 studies tested SAMe for depression and many showed benefits, but most were short, small and not high quality, so the evidence is not conclusive; people with bipolar disorder should use it only under supervision because it may worsen mania.
Mixed evidence Many small, short trials.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: SAMe (S-adenosyl-L-methionine) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Anxiety and complementary health approaches: What the science says
NCCIH Clinical Digest · a review of research
NCCIH found some evidence that meditation, music, relaxation techniques and melatonin may ease anxiety, especially around medical procedures, but no complementary approach has been proven to treat anxiety disorders. Acupuncture and massage studies are mixed and often of low quality.
Moderate evidence A careful official summary of reviews; much of the underlying research is small.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Practices, devices and therapies, graded honestly (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Acupuncture (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Massage (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The most useful studies to read (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, anxiety
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Chamomile: Usefulness and safety
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
Studies have not produced enough reliable evidence to rate chamomile for specific conditions, though early studies hint at help for generalized anxiety. It is likely safe in tea amounts; people allergic to ragweed and related plants may react, and interactions with warfarin have been reported.
Early evidence Mostly small studies.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Chamomile (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, anxiety
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Herb-drug interactions: What the science says
NCCIH Clinical Digest · a review of research
Lists clinically important interactions for St John’s wort, including cyclosporine (a transplant drug), indinavir (an HIV drug), birth control pills, warfarin, digoxin and benzodiazepines.
Strong evidence Interactions shown in studies of how the body handles drugs.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: St John’s wort (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Staying safe (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Chronic illness or low energy (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, supplement safety
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Kava: Usefulness and safety
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
Kava has been linked to rare but serious liver injury, including deaths, with supplements and with drinks. It should not be combined with alcohol or sedatives such as benzodiazepines, and has special risks in pregnancy and breastfeeding.
Strong evidence The liver warning is consistent across health agencies.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Kava (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, supplement safety
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Lavender: Usefulness and safety
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
It is unclear whether lavender aromatherapy helps anxiety, stress, mood or sleep. Short-term use of oral lavender products at the doses studied for anxiety appears reasonably safe; side effects can include stomach upset, headache and burping.
Mixed evidence Oral lavender oil has better evidence than smelling it.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Lavender capsules (Silexan) and smelling it (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Aromatherapy (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, anxiety
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Massage therapy: What you need to know
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
Massage may ease anxiety in some settings, but results are inconsistent and it has not been shown to treat generalized anxiety disorder. Risks are low; rare serious problems have been reported, mostly with vigorous massage.
Mixed evidence Inconsistent results.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Massage (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, calm
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Melatonin: What you need to know
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
Melatonin may help jet lag and shift-work sleep problems, but guidelines advise against it for long-term insomnia. Short-term use seems safe for most people; long-term safety is less known. Amounts in products can differ from the label. People with epilepsy or on blood thinners should use it only with medical advice.
Moderate evidence Good for sleep timing, weak for insomnia.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Melatonin (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, sleep, supplement safety
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Music and health: What you need to know
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
Early research suggests music can ease anxiety, for example while waiting for surgery, and in people with cancer, though many studies had a risk of bias.
Early evidence Promising, with weaker studies.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Music (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, calm, anxiety
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Passionflower: Usefulness and safety
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
A small amount of research suggests oral passionflower might ease anxiety, including before surgery or dental work, but conclusions are not definite. It might interact with some anesthesia drugs, so it is best avoided before surgery unless a clinician recommends it.
Early evidence Little research.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Passionflower (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, anxiety
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Rhodiola: Usefulness and safety
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
There isn’t enough reliable evidence to show rhodiola helps any health problem, and most human research is low to moderate quality. It may be safe for up to 12 weeks; side effects include dizziness, headache, trouble sleeping and dry mouth.
Early evidence Little good research.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Rhodiola (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) St. John’s Wort: Usefulness and safety
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
St John’s wort is not consistently effective for depression and is not approved as a medicine for it in the US. It interacts with many medicines, including birth control pills and some antidepressants, where the mix can cause a dangerous rise in serotonin.
Moderate evidence Official summary; trial results are mixed.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: St John’s wort (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The most useful studies to read (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Anxiety or OCD (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, supplement safety
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Stress, anxiety, and sleep problems: Considering complementary approaches
NCCIH eBook · a guideline or official report
A free plain-language guide that goes through relaxation, meditation, music, yoga, melatonin and herbal supplements for stress, anxiety and sleep, with what is known about whether each helps and is safe.
Moderate evidence An official summary for the public; it describes the evidence rather than adding new studies.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: The most useful studies to read (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, stress, sleep
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Tai chi: What you need to know
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
Tai chi appears safe, with minor aches the most common problem. Research suggests it helps balance in older adults, and NCCIH notes it may improve mood and quality of life in some groups of people with long-term illness.
Early evidence For mood, the research is limited.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Tai chi and qigong (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Chronic illness or low energy (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, calm
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Turmeric: Usefulness and safety
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
There isn’t enough evidence to say turmeric or curcumin helps any health problem. Highly absorbable curcumin products may harm the liver, and products vary in how much curcumin they contain.
Moderate evidence The liver warning rests on case reports.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Curcumin (from turmeric) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, supplement safety
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Valerian: Usefulness and safety
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
Evidence on valerian for sleep is inconsistent, and a 2017 sleep-medicine guideline advised against it for long-term insomnia. There is little evidence for anxiety. Short-term use seems safe for most adults; side effects include headache, stomach upset and vivid dreams.
Mixed evidence Inconsistent studies for sleep.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Valerian (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, sleep
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Yoga: Effectiveness and safety
NCCIH fact sheet · a guideline or official report
Research suggests yoga may ease anxiety and depression symptoms, but it is unclear whether it helps anxiety disorders. It is generally safe for healthy people with a qualified teacher; sprains and strains can happen.
Early evidence Helpful for symptoms, unclear for disorders.
Read more → nccih.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Yoga (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, calm
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2024) Menopause: identification and management (NG23)
NICE guideline (updated November 2024) · a guideline or official report
The 2024 update recommends menopause-specific CBT for hot flushes, sleep problems and low mood linked to menopause, alongside or instead of HRT, based on 14 randomized trials.
Strong evidence A national guideline based on a review of trials.
Read more → nice.org.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Browse every option, by condition or neurotype (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Menopause-specific CBT (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: complementary health, sleep
Nell, H., et al. (2013) A randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, placebo-controlled trial of extract Sceletium tortuosum (Zembrin) in healthy adults
Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine · a study
Over three months, 37 healthy adults taking a standard sceletium extract showed no clinically important differences from placebo in vital signs, heart tracings or blood tests; the trial tested safety, not benefit.
Early evidence One small safety trial linked to the maker.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Sceletium (kanna) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, supplement safety
Ng et al. (2017) Clinical use of curcumin in depression: A meta-analysis
Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 18(6), 503–508 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Six short trials (377 people, 4 to 8 weeks) found curcumin eased depression symptoms a little more than a dummy pill.
Early evidence Few, short trials.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Curcumin (from turmeric) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs
NHS (National Health Service, England) (ongoing) Herbal medicines and complementary therapies
NHS website (nhs.uk) · a guideline or official report
NHS advice is to look for the Traditional Herbal Registration (THR) mark and product code on herbal medicines, which show they meet UK standards for safety and quality.
Strong evidence Official guidance.
Read more → nhs.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Staying safe (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, regulation, supplement safety
NHS (National Health Service, England) (ongoing) Homeopathy
NHS website (nhs.uk) · a guideline or official report
There is no good-quality evidence that homeopathy works for any health condition. NHS England stopped funding it in 2017.
Strong evidence Consistent across major reviews.
Read more → nhs.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Homeopathy (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, complementary health
NHS (National Health Service, England) (ongoing) PMS (premenstrual syndrome)
NHS website (nhs.uk) · a guideline or official report
Regular exercise and plenty of sleep can help PMS; a GP can offer treatments including CBT, hormonal medicines and antidepressants if symptoms are severe.
Moderate evidence Official advice; the exercise trials are of poor quality.
Read more → nhs.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Browse every option, by condition or neurotype (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Movement (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: complementary health
NHS (National Health Service, England) (ongoing) Self-help: generalised anxiety disorder in adults
NHS website (nhs.uk) · a guideline or official report
The NHS self-help advice for anxiety includes regular exercise, relaxation and breathing exercises, good sleep, and cutting down on caffeine and alcohol, which can make anxiety and sleep worse.
Moderate evidence Official self-help advice built on research reviews; the advice is general, not tailored to one person.
Read more → nhs.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Start here: before any supplement (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Less caffeine (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Less alcohol (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The most useful studies to read (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, anxiety, stress, sleep
NHS (National Health Service, England) (ongoing) Treatment: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
NHS website (nhs.uk) · a guideline or official report
Talking therapies such as trauma-focused CBT and EMDR are the main treatments for PTSD; it is not clear exactly how EMDR works.
Moderate evidence Official advice.
Read more → nhs.uk
Where this shows up on the site: EMDR (for trauma) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: complementary health, trauma
NHS (National Health Service, England) (ongoing) Treatment: Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
NHS website (nhs.uk) · a guideline or official report
The NHS suggests getting as much natural daylight as you can, exercising and managing stress. Light boxes are not usually available on the NHS; check with a GP first if you have an eye condition or take medicines that make you sensitive to light.
Early evidence The NHS says there isn’t enough evidence to be sure light therapy works, though many people find it helps.
Read more → nhs.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Daylight (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Light therapy (light box) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, sleep
NHS (National Health Service, England) (ongoing) Who can and cannot take melatonin
NHS medicines information (nhs.uk) · a guideline or official report
In the UK, melatonin is a prescribed medicine. Most adults aged 55 or over can take it for short-term sleep problems; younger adults and children can take it if a specialist recommends it. Tell a doctor first about liver or kidney problems or an autoimmune condition.
Strong evidence Official prescribing guidance.
Read more → nhs.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Melatonin (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, sleep, regulation
Noetel, M., et al. (2024) Effect of exercise for depression: systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials
BMJ, 384, e075847 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 218 trials (about 14,000 people), exercise helped depression. Walking or jogging, yoga and strength training did best, especially at higher intensity, and yoga and strength training were well tolerated.
Strong evidence Many trials; the authors note most could not blind people to what they were doing, so expectations may add to the effect.
Read more → jyx.jyu.fi
Where this shows up on the site: Movement (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The most useful studies to read (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Sleep, moving and people do a lot of the work. (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma) · Sleep, moving and people (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma)
Topics: supplements, exercise
NSF (ongoing) Product and ingredient certification (dietary supplements, NSF/ANSI 173)
NSF website · a guideline or official report
NSF certification to its dietary supplement standard checks that a product contains what the label says and is screened for specified contaminants, with factory audits and retesting. It is not an approval that the product works.
Strong evidence Describes what the testing covers.
Read more → nsf.org
Where this shows up on the site: Staying safe (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, supplement safety
NutraIngredients (2023) Growing concerns over safety of ashwagandha in EU member states
NutraIngredients (trade news report) · a news report
Reports that Danish authorities, after a 2020 risk assessment found no safe dose could be set, moved against ashwagandha in supplements, and that other European countries were looking at the same concerns.
Debated Industry groups and some researchers dispute the Danish assessment.
Read more → nutraingredients.com
Where this shows up on the site: Ashwagandha (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, regulation
Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Ashwagandha: Fact sheet for consumers
ODS fact sheet · a guideline or official report
Ashwagandha appears safe for up to about three months, but longer-term safety is unclear. It has been linked to liver injury in some people, may affect thyroid function and thyroid medicines, and may interact with diabetes, blood pressure, sedative and immune-suppressing drugs. There are concerns in pregnancy and breastfeeding.
Moderate evidence Official summary; the liver reports are case reports.
Read more → ods.od.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Ashwagandha (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, supplement safety
Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Calcium: Fact sheet for consumers
ODS fact sheet · a guideline or official report
Calcium carbonate stops levothyroxine being absorbed well if taken within 4 hours of it, and calcium interferes with quinolone antibiotics.
Strong evidence An official fact sheet.
Read more → ods.od.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Calcium (for PMS) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, supplement safety
Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Iron: Fact sheet for consumers
ODS fact sheet · a guideline or official report
The adult upper limit for iron is 45 mg a day unless prescribed; accidental overdose of iron products is a leading cause of fatal poisoning in children under 6; iron can reduce absorption of some medicines such as levothyroxine.
Strong evidence An official fact sheet.
Read more → ods.od.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Staying safe (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Iron (only if you are low) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, supplement safety
Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Magnesium: Fact sheet for consumers
ODS fact sheet · a guideline or official report
The upper limit for adults is 350 mg a day from supplements and medicines (not food). Too much from supplements can cause diarrhea, nausea and cramps; extremely high amounts can cause serious heart problems.
Strong evidence Official intake guidance.
Read more → ods.od.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Magnesium (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, supplement safety
Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Magnesium: Fact sheet for health professionals
ODS fact sheet · a guideline or official report
Forms of magnesium that dissolve well in liquid (aspartate, citrate, lactate and chloride) are absorbed somewhat better than magnesium oxide and sulfate, in small studies.
Moderate evidence An official summary of research; the absorption studies are small.
Read more → ods.od.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Magnesium (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, supplement safety
Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Omega-3 fatty acids: Fact sheet for consumers
ODS fact sheet · a guideline or official report
High doses of omega-3s may cause bleeding problems when taken with warfarin or other blood-thinning medicines.
Strong evidence Official guidance.
Read more → ods.od.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Omega-3 (fish oil) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, supplement safety
Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS), US National Institutes of Health (ongoing) Zinc: Fact sheet for consumers
ODS fact sheet · a guideline or official report
The upper limit for adults is 40 mg of zinc a day. Too much can cause nausea, vomiting, stomach upset and headaches, and over time can lower copper levels and immunity.
Strong evidence Official intake guidance.
Read more → ods.od.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Zinc (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, supplement safety
Okereke et al. (2020) Effect of long-term vitamin D3 supplementation vs placebo on risk of depression or clinically relevant depressive symptoms and on change in mood scores: A randomized clinical trial
JAMA, 324(5), 471–480 · a study
In 18,353 adults aged 50 and over followed for about five years, vitamin D3 (2,000 IU a day) did not lower the risk of depression or improve mood compared with a dummy pill.
Strong evidence A very large, long trial; most people in it were not low in vitamin D.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Vitamin D (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The most useful studies to read (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, supplements
Pase, M. P., et al. (2012) The cognitive-enhancing effects of Bacopa monnieri: a systematic review of randomized, controlled human clinical trials
Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 18(7), 647–652 · a review of research
Across six 12-week trials, bacopa improved memory free recall in 9 of 17 tests; the authors called the evidence suggestive, not conclusive.
Early evidence A small number of short trials.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Bacopa (brahmi) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs
Pigeon et al. (2010) Effects of a tart cherry juice beverage on the sleep of older adults with insomnia: A pilot study
Journal of Medicinal Food · a study
In 15 older adults with insomnia, two weeks of tart cherry juice twice a day modestly reduced insomnia severity and time awake at night compared with a look-alike drink.
Early evidence A 15-person pilot, linked to a cherry industry group.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Tart cherry juice (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, sleep
Pittler, M. H., & Ernst, E. (2003) Kava extract versus placebo for treating anxiety
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, CD003383 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 12 trials, kava extract eased anxiety a little more than a dummy pill, but the effect was small and not robust. The review is now marked as out of date.
Mixed evidence A small effect, and the review is old.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Kava (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The most useful studies to read (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, anxiety
Pjrek, E., et al. (2020) The efficacy of light therapy in the treatment of seasonal affective disorder: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 89(1), 17–24 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 18 trials (610 people), bright light therapy reduced seasonal depression more than dim light or sham devices, and more people responded.
Moderate evidence A meta-analysis of small, varied trials with moderate to high risk of bias.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Light therapy (light box) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: complementary health
Richardson, A. J., & Montgomery, P. (2005) The Oxford-Durham study: a randomized, controlled trial of dietary supplementation with fatty acids in children with developmental coordination disorder
Pediatrics, 115(5), 1360–1366 · a study
In 117 children with dyspraxia (developmental coordination disorder), three months of omega-3 and omega-6 capsules did not improve movement skills, but reading, spelling and behaviour improved compared with olive-oil placebo capsules.
Early evidence One randomized trial; not yet well replicated.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Omega-3 (fish oil) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Dyslexic or dyspraxic (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, neurodiversity
Shaw, K. A., Turner, J., & Del Mar, C. (2002) Tryptophan and 5-hydroxytryptophan for depression
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, CD003198 · a review of research
Many studies, but few good enough to rely on; 5-HTP and tryptophan may beat a dummy pill for depression, but because proven, safer antidepressants exist their usefulness is limited, and a possible link to a dangerous illness (EMS) is unresolved.
Mixed evidence A Cochrane review of mostly poor-quality trials.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: 5-HTP (5-hydroxytryptophan) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · L-tryptophan (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements
Singh, B., et al. (2023) Effectiveness of physical activity interventions for improving depression, anxiety and distress: an overview of systematic reviews
British Journal of Sports Medicine · a review of research
An overview of 97 reviews (1,039 trials, about 128,000 people) found physical activity reduced symptoms of depression, anxiety and distress compared with usual care, with medium-sized effects.
Strong evidence A very large body of trials; the trials vary a lot in quality and type of exercise.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Start here: before any supplement (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Movement (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The most useful studies to read (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The vagus nerve, and what helps (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words) · Sleep and moving (Guide: After a breakup)
Topics: supplements, anxiety, stress, exercise
Su, K.-P., Tseng, P.-T., Lin, P.-Y., et al. (2018) Association of use of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids with changes in severity of anxiety symptoms: A systematic review and meta-analysis
JAMA Network Open · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 19 trials (2,240 people), omega-3 was linked with less anxiety than control treatments, more clearly in people with a medical or psychiatric condition. The authors said it was too early to call it a first-line treatment.
Early evidence Promising, but trials vary.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Omega-3 (fish oil) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The most useful studies to read (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, anxiety
Thys-Jacobs, S., et al., for the Premenstrual Syndrome Study Group (1998) Calcium carbonate and the premenstrual syndrome: effects on premenstrual and menstrual symptoms
American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 179(2), 444–452 · a study
In a US trial of 466 women over three cycles, calcium carbonate lowered premenstrual symptom scores more than placebo by the second and third cycle; the placebo group also improved.
Early evidence One large randomized trial, not widely repeated.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Calcium (for PMS) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements
Trotti, L. M., & Becker, L. A. (2019) Iron for the treatment of restless legs syndrome
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, CD007834.pub3 · a review of research
Across 10 trials (428 people), iron eased restless legs symptoms a little more than a dummy pill, sometimes even when blood iron was normal.
Moderate evidence A Cochrane review of small trials, with a low-to-moderate benefit.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Iron (only if you are low) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, sleep
Tseng, P.-T., Cheng, Y.-S., Yen, C.-F., et al. (2018) Peripheral iron levels in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Scientific Reports, 8, 788 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Children with ADHD had lower ferritin (stored iron) on average than other children, but similar blood iron and transferrin.
Moderate evidence A meta-analysis of observational studies; it shows a link, not a cause.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Iron (only if you are low) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · ADHD (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, ADHD
United States Pharmacopeia (USP) (ongoing) USP’s Dietary Supplement Verification Program
USP website · a guideline or official report
The USP Verified mark means a product was tested to contain what its label says, in the stated amounts, without harmful levels of specified contaminants, and was made under good manufacturing practice. It does not show that the product works.
Strong evidence Describes what the testing covers.
Read more → usp.org
Where this shows up on the site: Staying safe (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, supplement safety
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (ongoing) FDA regulation of cannabis and cannabis-derived products, including cannabidiol (CBD)
FDA website · a guideline or official report
The FDA has approved one purified CBD medicine (Epidiolex), for seizures in Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, Dravet syndrome and, since 2020, tuberous sclerosis complex; it has not approved cannabis itself for any condition.
Strong evidence The regulator’s own statement of what it has approved.
Read more → fda.gov
Where this shows up on the site: CBD (cannabidiol) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, supplement safety, regulation
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (ongoing) Questions and answers on dietary supplements
FDA website · a guideline or official report
In the US, the FDA does not approve dietary supplements before they are sold. Makers are responsible for safety and labels, and the FDA mostly acts after products are on the market.
Strong evidence Official description of the law.
Read more → fda.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Staying safe (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The most useful studies to read (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, regulation, supplement safety
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (ongoing) What you need to know (and what we’re working to find out) about products containing cannabis or cannabis-derived compounds, including CBD
FDA Consumer Update · a guideline or official report
The FDA warns that CBD can cause liver injury and can change how other medicines work, which may cause serious side effects.
Moderate evidence Safety signals seen in the approved medicine’s trials.
Read more → fda.gov
Where this shows up on the site: CBD (cannabidiol) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, supplement safety
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (2018) FDA approves first drug comprised of an active ingredient derived from marijuana to treat rare, severe forms of epilepsy
FDA news release · a guideline or official report
In 2018 the FDA approved Epidiolex, a purified CBD medicine, for seizures in two rare, severe forms of childhood epilepsy, after three trials with 516 patients.
Strong evidence An approval based on controlled trials, for epilepsy only.
Read more → fda.gov
Where this shows up on the site: CBD (cannabidiol) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, regulation
Williams, E., Dingle, G. A., & Clift, S. (2018) A systematic review of mental health and wellbeing outcomes of group singing for adults with a mental health condition
European Journal of Public Health, 28(6), 1035–1042 · a review of research
Across 13 studies (667 people with mental health conditions), group singing was linked with better mental health and wellbeing, but the studies had moderate to high risk of bias, so the findings are inconclusive.
Early evidence Mostly uncontrolled studies.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Humming and singing (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · The vagus nerve, and what helps (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: complementary health, calm
Williams, J. L., Everett, J. M., et al. (2020) The effects of green tea amino acid L-theanine consumption on the ability to manage stress and anxiety levels: A systematic review
Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 75, 12–23 · a review of research
Nine trials suggested 200–400 mg a day of L-theanine may help reduce stress and anxiety in people under stress. The authors said longer and larger studies are needed.
Early evidence Small, short studies.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: L-theanine (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, anxiety
Woelk, H., Arnoldt, K. H., Kieser, M., & Hoerr, R. (2007) Ginkgo biloba special extract EGb 761 in generalized anxiety disorder and adjustment disorder with anxious mood: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
Journal of Psychiatric Research, 41(6), 472–480 · a study
In 107 people with generalized anxiety or adjustment disorder with anxiety, four weeks of a standard ginkgo extract lowered anxiety scores more than a dummy pill.
Early evidence One randomized trial, not widely repeated.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Ginkgo (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, anxiety
Yamadera et al. (2007) Glycine ingestion improves subjective sleep quality in human volunteers, correlating with polysomnographic changes
Sleep and Biological Rhythms · a study
In a small study of poor sleepers, 3 g of glycine before bed improved how well people felt they slept, helped them fall asleep sooner, and lessened next-day sleepiness.
Early evidence Small studies from one research group.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Glycine (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, sleep
Yap et al. (2019) Efficacy and safety of lavender essential oil (Silexan) capsules among patients suffering from anxiety disorders: A network meta-analysis
Scientific Reports, 9, 18042 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Five trials of a standard lavender oil capsule (Silexan) for anxiety disorders were compared. The higher dose looked best, but the differences from the comparisons were not statistically clear.
Early evidence Few trials, and the differences were not statistically clear.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Lavender capsules (Silexan) and smelling it (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, anxiety
Yosaee et al. (2022) Zinc in depression: From development to treatment: A comparative/dose response meta-analysis of observational studies and randomized controlled trials
General Hospital Psychiatry, 74, 110–117 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
In a few small trials, zinc lowered depression scores in people with depression, but only when given on its own, not when added to antidepressants. People with more zinc in their diet had lower depression risk in observational studies.
Early evidence Few trials, and results differ from an earlier review.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Zinc (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, supplements
Young, L. M., et al. (2019) A systematic review and meta-analysis of B vitamin supplementation on depressive symptoms, anxiety, and stress: effects on healthy and “at-risk” individuals
Nutrients, 11(9), 2232 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 16 trials of B-complex supplements taken for at least four weeks, people reported slightly less stress; there was no clear effect on depression or anxiety.
Moderate evidence A meta-analysis of randomized trials with a small effect and moderate differences between studies.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: B vitamins (B-complex, B12, folate) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, stress
Zhao, F.-Y., Xu, P., Kennedy, G. A., Zheng, Z., et al. (2024) Commercial Chinese polyherbal preparation Zao Ren An Shen prescription for primary insomnia: a systematic review with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis
Frontiers in Pharmacology, 15, 1376637 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 22 studies (2,142 people), the sour jujube seed formula Zao Ren An Shen looked promising for insomnia, but the evidence quality was limited and results disagree: a double-blind Australian trial found it no better than placebo.
Mixed evidence Many low-quality trials with conflicting results, testing a multi-herb formula.
Read more → frontiersin.org
Where this shows up on the site: Sour jujube seed (Ziziphus, suan zao ren) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: supplements, herbs, sleep
Back to the search and topics
Work, teams and shared systems
Teams, checklists, feedback and the setups that make shared work easier.
Beyer, B., Jones, C., Petoff, J., & Murphy, N. R. (Eds.) (2016) Site Reliability Engineering: How Google Runs Production Systems — Chapter 15, Postmortem Culture: Learning from Failure
O’Reilly Media (free online at sre.google) · a book
Describes blameless postmortems: a written record of an incident, its impact, actions taken, root causes and follow-ups, focused on systems rather than blaming individuals.
Early evidence Industry practice guide, not research.
Read more → sre.google
Where this shows up on the site: Blameless reviews and just culture (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: blameless reviews, teams
Campbell, D. T. (1979) Assessing the impact of planned social change
Evaluation and Program Planning (1979); free reprint in Journal of MultiDisciplinary Evaluation, 7(15), 2011 · a theory or model
Source of what is called “Campbell’s law”: the more a numerical social indicator is used to make decisions, the more it is open to distortion and the less well it measures what it was meant to.
Moderate evidence Widely documented in education, health and business.
Read more → jmde.journals.publicknowledgeproject.org
Where this shows up on the site: Goodhart’s law: when measures become targets (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: Goodhart’s law, measurement
Darley, J. M., & Latané, B. (1968) Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8(4), 377–383 · a study
Participants who believed others could also hear a person having a seizure were slower and less likely to help; the presence of others reduced each person’s sense of responsibility.
Strong evidence Classic and widely replicated, though weaker in clearly dangerous emergencies.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Don’t wait for someone else to step in (Book: Helping others well) · Why a repeat points to the setup (Book: The monthly look-back) · Ownership clarity (Book: Is the split working?) · Honest research notes (Book: Two kinds of fair) · Who this book is for (Book: The work nobody sees)
Topics: diffusion of responsibility, ownership, teams, helping, bystander
Dekker, S. (2007) Just Culture: Balancing Safety and Accountability
Ashgate (2nd ed. 2012) · a book
Argues for a “just culture” that separates honest mistakes from reckless behaviour, and that who draws the line matters as much as where it is drawn.
Moderate evidence Influential practitioner-scholarly book; evidence mainly from case studies.
Read more → relbib.de
Where this shows up on the site: No blame, still responsible (Book: The monthly look-back) · Blameless reviews and just culture (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: blameless reviews, just culture, teams
Deming, W. E. (1986) Out of the Crisis
MIT Press (Center for Advanced Engineering Study), Cambridge, MA · a book
Deming’s case for quality management, arguing that most problems come from the system people work in rather than from individual workers.
Moderate evidence Hugely influential management book, not a research study.
Read more → eploes.lib2.uniwa.gr
Where this shows up on the site: Why a repeat points to the setup (Book: The monthly look-back) · Agreeing, in three homes (Book: Two kinds of fair) · Small experiments: plan, do, study, act (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: Plan, Do, Study, Act, systems, teams
Edmondson, A. (1999) Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams
Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(2), 350–383 · a study
In 51 teams at a manufacturing company, a shared belief that it was safe to take interpersonal risks (psychological safety) was linked with more team learning behaviour, which in turn was linked with performance.
Strong evidence Highly replicated construct, though most studies are correlational.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Trust is built in small moments (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging) · Fitting in isn’t belonging (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging) · Talking well at work (Library: Talking and listening) · Psychological safety (Library: Systems and teams) · Emotional safety (Library: Feelings and emotions)
Topics: psychological safety, teams, work
Fischer, P., Krueger, J. I., Greitemeyer, T., and colleagues (2011) The bystander-effect: A meta-analytic review on bystander intervention in dangerous and non-dangerous emergencies
Psychological Bulletin, 137(4), 517–537 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 105 effect sizes and over 7,700 participants, the bystander effect was reliable but weaker when situations were clearly dangerous.
Strong evidence Large meta-analysis.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Don’t wait for someone else to step in (Book: Helping others well) · Diffusion of responsibility (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: diffusion of responsibility, teams, helping, bystander
Gersick, C. J. G. (1988) Time and transition in work teams: Toward a new model of group development
Academy of Management Journal, 31(1), 9–41 · a study
Following eight project teams from first meeting to deadline, found a “punctuated equilibrium” pattern: long stretches of inertia broken by a burst of change near the midpoint of the team’s time, prompted by awareness of the deadline.
Moderate evidence Small qualitative field study; an influential alternative to stage models.
Read more → web.mit.edu
Where this shows up on the site: How teams settle: forming, storming, norming (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: team development, teams
Ghibellini, R., & Meier, B. (2025) Interruption, recall and resumption [meta-analysis of the Zeigarnik and Ovsiankina effects]
Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 12 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Found no general memory advantage for interrupted tasks (the Zeigarnik effect), but a reliable tendency to resume interrupted tasks (the Ovsiankina effect).
Strong evidence Recent meta-analysis.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Unfinished tasks and the Zeigarnik effect (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: unfinished tasks, mental load
Goodhart, C. A. E. (1975) Problems of monetary management: The U.K. experience
Paper presented at the Conference in Monetary Economics, Sydney, July 1975; published in Papers in Monetary Economics, Vol. I (Reserve Bank of Australia, 1976); reprinted in Goodhart, Monetary Theory and Practice (Macmillan, 1984) · a theory or model
The original source of “Goodhart’s law”: a statistical regularity tends to break down once authorities put pressure on it for control purposes.
Moderate evidence An economist’s observation, later generalised; widely documented in practice.
Read more → rba.gov.au
Where this shows up on the site: Step three: close the month and keep count (Book: The monthly look-back) · Where the thirteen fields meet in this chapter (Book: Is the split working?) · Goodhart’s law: when measures become targets (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: Goodhart’s law, measurement
Google re:Work (2015) Guide: Understand team effectiveness (Project Aristotle)
Google re:Work (web guide) · a study
Google’s internal research on what makes its teams effective reported that how members interact mattered more than who was on the team, with psychological safety the most important of five factors (with dependability, structure and clarity, meaning, and impact).
Early evidence Internal company research, not peer-reviewed; findings summarised by Google.
Read more → rework.withgoogle.com
Where this shows up on the site: Psychological safety (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: psychological safety, teams, work
Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985) Sources of conflict between work and family roles
Academy of Management Review, 10(1), 76–88 · a theory or model
Reviewed the literature and described three forms of work–family conflict: time-based, strain-based and behaviour-based.
Strong evidence Foundational model; meta-analyses link work–family conflict with lower satisfaction.
Read more → researchdiscovery.drexel.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Work, home and the spillover between them (Library: Family, money and life changes)
Topics: work and home, work, stress
Haynes, A. B., Weiser, T. G., Berry, W. R., et al. (incl. Gawande, A. A.) (2009) A surgical safety checklist to reduce morbidity and mortality in a global population
New England Journal of Medicine, 360(5), 491–499 · a study
In a before-and-after study across eight hospitals in eight cities (7,688 patients), introducing the WHO Surgical Safety Checklist was followed by fewer deaths and major complications.
Moderate evidence Large but before-and-after (not randomized); later rollouts showed mixed results.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Checklists (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: checklists, teams, systems
Hollingshead, A. B. (1998) Retrieval processes in transactive memory systems
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 659–671 · a study
Dating couples recalled more together than pairs of strangers, consistent with couples using an established system for who remembers what.
Moderate evidence Lab experiments with student couples.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Transactive memory: remembering as a team (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: transactive memory, relationships
Kahn, R. L., Wolfe, D. M., Quinn, R. P., and colleagues (1964) Organizational Stress: Studies in Role Conflict and Ambiguity
Wiley (New York) · a book
Introduced role conflict and role ambiguity as major sources of work stress: not knowing clearly what is expected of you, or facing incompatible demands.
Strong evidence Foundational; later meta-analyses link role ambiguity with stress and lower job satisfaction.
Read more → library.usi.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Disagreeing at work (Library: Conflict and how to resolve it) · Talking well at work (Library: Talking and listening) · Role ambiguity (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: role ambiguity, work, teams, workload
Karau, S. J., & Williams, K. D. (1993) Social loafing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(4), 681–706 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Social loafing was reliable across many tasks and populations, and smaller when individual contributions could be identified or evaluated and when the task mattered to people.
Strong evidence Meta-analysis.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Social loafing (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: social loafing, teams
Kerth, N. L. (2001) Project Retrospectives: A Handbook for Team Reviews
Dorset House · a book
Practitioner handbook on running project retrospectives, including the need for them to feel safe and the “Prime Directive” that everyone did the best job they could with what they knew.
Early evidence Practitioner method; evidence comes from wider research on debriefs.
Read more → informit.com
Where this shows up on the site: Retrospectives: looking back to improve (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: retrospectives, teams
Kluger, A. N., & DeNisi, A. (1996) The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory
Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 254–284 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 607 effect sizes, feedback improved performance on average, but in more than a third of cases it made performance worse, especially when it drew attention to the self rather than the task.
Strong evidence Large meta-analysis.
Read more → scholars.huji.ac.il
Where this shows up on the site: Giving and receiving feedback (Library: Talking and listening)
Topics: feedback, work
Latané, B., Williams, K., & Harkins, S. (1979) Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(6), 822–832 · a study
When clapping and shouting in groups, people put in less individual effort than alone, over and above losses from poor coordination: “social loafing”.
Strong evidence Classic, widely replicated.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: “Weaponised incompetence” and learned helplessness at home (Library: Fairness and the mental load at home) · Social loafing (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: social loafing, teams, fairness
Masicampo, E. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2011) Consider it done! Plan making can eliminate the cognitive effects of unfulfilled goals
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(4), 667–683 · a study
Unfinished goals caused intrusive thoughts and interfered with other tasks; writing a specific plan for the goal removed these effects.
Moderate evidence Lab experiments; not yet widely replicated.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Cognitive offloading: getting it out of your head (Library: Systems and teams) · Unfinished tasks and the Zeigarnik effect (Library: Systems and teams) · A home that runs itself (with nobody to remind you) (Guide: Living on your own, living well, in full)
Topics: cognitive offloading, mental load, unfinished tasks
Neff, L. A., & Karney, B. R. (2009) Stress and reactivity to daily relationship experiences: How stress hinders adaptive processes in marriage
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(3), 435–450 · a study
Spouses under more stress outside the relationship reacted more strongly to everyday negative experiences within it.
Moderate evidence Daily-diary studies of newlyweds; correlational.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Leftover stress and this-moment stress (Book: Full tanks and different angles) · Why outside pressure gets blamed on the person next to you (Guide: Is it us, or is it everything else?)
Topics: spillover, stress, relationships, work and home
Reason, J. (1990) Human Error
Cambridge University Press · a book
A theory of human error that sorts slips, lapses and mistakes, and introduced the layered-defences thinking behind the “Swiss cheese” model of accidents.
Strong evidence Foundational in safety science; the Swiss cheese model is criticised as too simple for complex systems.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: No blame, still responsible (Book: The monthly look-back) · Blameless reviews and just culture (Library: Systems and teams) · The Swiss cheese model (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: blameless reviews, the Swiss cheese model, teams, systems
Reason, J. (1997) Managing the Risks of Organizational Accidents
Ashgate (now Routledge) · a book
Describes how organisational accidents arise from latent conditions combining with front-line errors, and sets out ideas for a safety and “just” culture.
Strong evidence Foundational in safety science.
Read more → routledge.com
Where this shows up on the site: No blame, still responsible (Book: The monthly look-back) · Blameless reviews and just culture (Library: Systems and teams) · The Swiss cheese model (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: blameless reviews, just culture, systems
Repetti, R. L. (1989) Effects of daily workload on subsequent behavior during marital interaction: The roles of social withdrawal and spouse support
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(4), 651–659 · a study
In a daily study of air traffic controllers, after high-workload days they were more socially withdrawn and less emotionally expressive with their spouses that evening.
Moderate evidence Small daily-diary study; an early classic of “spillover” research.
Read more → psych.ucla.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Stress adds up, like a tank filling (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Home environment and mood (Library: Calm and attention) · Work, home and the spillover between them (Library: Family, money and life changes) · Why outside pressure gets blamed on the person next to you (Guide: Is it us, or is it everything else?)
Topics: work and home, stress, spillover, work
Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016) Cognitive offloading
Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688 · a review of research
Reviewed how people use physical actions and tools (lists, reminders, notes) to reduce the mental demands of a task, what triggers offloading, and its consequences for memory.
Moderate evidence Review of a growing field.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Cognitive offloading: getting it out of your head (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: cognitive offloading, mental load
Rizzo, J. R., House, R. J., & Lirtzman, S. I. (1970) Role conflict and ambiguity in complex organizations
Administrative Science Quarterly, 15(2), 150–163 · a study
Developed questionnaire measures of role conflict and role ambiguity, which became the most widely used scales in later research.
Strong evidence Measures used in most later role-stress research.
Read more → data.gesis.org
Where this shows up on the site: Role ambiguity (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: role ambiguity, work
Strathern, M. (1997) ‘Improving ratings’: Audit in the British University system
European Review, 5(3), 305–321 · a study
Anthropological commentary on the “audit explosion” in British universities; widely credited as the source of the popular phrasing of Goodhart’s law (when a measure becomes a target, it stops being a good measure).
Moderate evidence Essay/commentary, widely cited.
Read more → cambridge.org
Where this shows up on the site: Step three: close the month and keep count (Book: The monthly look-back) · Where the thirteen fields meet in this chapter (Book: Is the split working?) · Goodhart’s law: when measures become targets (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: Goodhart’s law, measurement, teams
Tannenbaum, S. I., & Cerasoli, C. P. (2013) Do team and individual debriefs enhance performance? A meta-analysis
Human Factors, 55(1), 231–245 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 46 samples, well-conducted debriefs improved effectiveness by roughly 20–25% on average compared with controls, for both teams and individuals; alignment, facilitation and structure helped.
Strong evidence Meta-analysis.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Retrospectives: looking back to improve (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: retrospectives, teams, check ins
Taylor, M. J., McNicholas, C., Nicolay, C., and colleagues (2014) Systematic review of the application of the plan–do–study–act method to improve quality in healthcare
BMJ Quality & Safety, 23(4), 290–298 · a review of research
Of 73 healthcare articles reporting the use of plan–do–study–act cycles, most did not report key features of the method, such as iterative cycles, small tests of change and real-time data.
Strong evidence Systematic review; shows the method is often named but not fully followed.
Read more → qualitysafety.bmj.com
Where this shows up on the site: Agreeing, in three homes (Book: Two kinds of fair) · Small experiments: plan, do, study, act (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: Plan, Do, Study, Act, teams, systems
Tuckman, B. W. (1965) Developmental sequence in small groups
Psychological Bulletin, 63(6), 384–399 · a review of research
A review of about 50 studies of therapy, training, natural and laboratory groups proposed that groups pass through stages now known as forming, storming, norming and performing.
Debated Widely taught, but later research finds many teams don’t follow a neat sequence.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: How teams settle: forming, storming, norming (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: team development, teams
Tuckman, B. W., & Jensen, M. A. C. (1977) Stages of small-group development revisited
Group & Organization Studies, 2(4), 419–427 · a review of research
Reviewed 22 later studies of the stage model, noting that only one directly tested it, and added a fifth stage, adjourning.
Debated The stage model has limited direct testing.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: How teams settle: forming, storming, norming (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: team development, teams
Urbach, D. R., Govindarajan, A., Saskin, R., and colleagues (2014) Introduction of surgical safety checklists in Ontario, Canada
New England Journal of Medicine, 370(11), 1029–1038 · a study
After surgical checklists were mandated across 101 Ontario hospitals, there was no significant reduction in operative deaths or complications.
Moderate evidence Large population study; suggests implementation matters as much as the checklist.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Checklists (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: checklists, teams, systems
Wegner, D. M., Giuliano, T., & Hertel, P. T. (1985) Cognitive interdependence in close relationships
In W. J. Ickes (Ed.), Compatible and Incompatible Relationships (pp. 253–276). Springer-Verlag · a theory or model
Proposed that close partners share the work of remembering (“transactive memory”): each relies on the other to know and recall certain things.
Moderate evidence Influential theory with supporting experiments in couples and teams.
Read more → dtg.sites.fas.harvard.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Transactive memory: remembering as a team (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: transactive memory, mental load, relationships, teams
Wegner, D. M. (1987) Transactive memory: A contemporary analysis of the group mind
In B. Mullen & G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Theories of Group Behavior (pp. 185–208). Springer-Verlag · a theory or model
Defined transactive memory as individual memory systems combined with the communication between people, so a group knows more than any one member.
Moderate evidence Foundational theory; supported by later team research.
Read more → alnap.org
Where this shows up on the site: Transactive memory: remembering as a team (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: transactive memory, teams
Zeigarnik, B. (1927) Das Behalten erledigter und unerledigter Handlungen [Remembering completed and uncompleted actions]
Psychologische Forschung, 9, 1–85 · a study
Reported that people recalled interrupted tasks better than completed ones.
Debated Later studies and a 2025 meta-analysis found the memory effect does not reliably replicate, while the tendency to resume interrupted tasks (Ovsiankina effect) holds up better.
Read more → en.wikipedia.org
Where this shows up on the site: Unfinished tasks and the Zeigarnik effect (Library: Systems and teams)
Topics: unfinished tasks, mental load
Back to the search and topics
Minds that work differently
Autism, ADHD, sensory differences, and meeting in the middle.
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) (2018) Facilitated communication [Position statement]
ASHA policy PS2018-00352 · a guideline or official report
States that facilitated communication, where a helper supports the person’s hand or arm while they type or point, is discredited: research has found the messages come from the facilitator, and it should not be used.
Strong evidence Professional position statement based on decades of controlled testing.
Read more → asha.org
Where this shows up on the site: Non-speaking people and AAC (Book: Minds that work differently)
Topics: neurodiversity, aac, communication
Aron, E. N., & Aron, A. (1997) Sensory-processing sensitivity and its relation to introversion and emotionality
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(2), 345–368 · a study
Across seven studies, the authors identified a single core trait of sensory-processing sensitivity, partly independent of introversion and emotionality, and developed the 27-item Highly Sensitive Person Scale.
Moderate evidence A widely used measure; later research supports the trait but debates its structure and overlap with neuroticism.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Senses, overload and needs (Book: Minds that work differently) · Highly sensitive people (sensory processing sensitivity) (Library: Differences in wiring) · Minds that work differently (Book) · Highly sensitive (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Sensory differences (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: neurodiversity, sensory, highly sensitive people
Au-Yeung, S. K., Freeth, M., & Thompson, A. R. (2025) ‘Am I gonna regret this?’: The experiences of diagnostic disclosure in autistic adults
Autism, 29(8), 2181–2192 · a study
In interviews with 12 adults diagnosed as autistic in adulthood, telling others helped some reach support, be more themselves and help others, but many had not been believed, which made them more cautious about telling.
Early evidence Small qualitative study.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Telling friends and dates is your choice. (Book: Minds that work differently) · Disclosure in friendships and dating (Book: Minds that work differently)
Topics: autism, neurodiversity, disclosure
Barkley, R. A. (1997) Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD
Psychological Bulletin, 121(1), 65–94 · a theory or model
A theoretical review proposing that ADHD centres on a difficulty with behavioural inhibition, which in turn affects executive functions such as working memory, self-regulation of emotion and motivation, and the sense of time.
Moderate evidence Highly influential theory; executive function difficulties are common in ADHD but not universal.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: ADHD, time and motivation (Book: Minds that work differently) · ADHD: attention, time and executive function (Library: Differences in wiring) · Minds that work differently (Book) · Executive function in daily life (Book: Minds that work differently) · Living alone when you’re neurodivergent (Guide: Living on your own, living well, in full)
Topics: neurodiversity, ADHD
Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009) Beyond diathesis stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences
Psychological Bulletin, 135(6), 885–908 · a theory or model
A review arguing for "differential susceptibility": some people are more affected by their environment for better and for worse, being harmed more by adversity but also benefiting more from support.
Moderate evidence Influential and supported by many studies, though effects are often small.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Going deeper: what research says about temperament (Guide: Know your own wiring) · Highly sensitive people (sensory processing sensitivity) (Library: Differences in wiring)
Topics: highly sensitive people, sensory
Blackwell, A. G. (2017) The curb-cut effect
Stanford Social Innovation Review, 15(1), Winter 2017 · a theory or model
An essay arguing that laws and programmes designed for disadvantaged groups, like kerb cuts made for wheelchair users, often end up benefiting everyone.
An idea, not a test A persuasive argument with examples, not a study.
Read more → ssir.org
Where this shows up on the site: Adjustments that help everyone (Book: Minds that work differently)
Topics: neurodiversity, accessibility
Botha, M., & Frost, D. M. (2020) Extending the minority stress model to understand mental health problems experienced by the autistic population
Society and Mental Health, 10(1), 20–34 · a study
In 111 autistic adults, everyday discrimination, internalised stigma and concealing being autistic predicted poorer mental health even after accounting for general stress, suggesting minority stress plays a part.
Early evidence One cross-sectional survey of a modest sample.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Autistic community and identity (Book: Minds that work differently)
Topics: autism, neurodiversity, minority stress
Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021) "No way out except from external intervention": First-hand accounts of autistic inertia
Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 631596 · a study
Focus groups with autistic adults described "autistic inertia", difficulty starting and stopping tasks in everyday life despite wanting to, shaped by both inner and outside factors and with broad effects on daily life and wellbeing.
Early evidence The first study of its kind, led by an autistic researcher; qualitative.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Inertia and task switching (Library: Differences in wiring) · The research behind this page (Guide: The logic behind it)
Topics: neurodiversity, autism
Carleton, R. N. (2016) Fear of the unknown: One fear to rule them all?
Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 41, 5–21 · a review of research
A review arguing that fear of the unknown, closely related to intolerance of uncertainty, may be a fundamental fear underlying anxiety and neuroticism.
An idea, not a test An influential review; the "fundamental fear" claim is a proposal, not settled.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Intolerance of uncertainty (Library: Differences in wiring) · Worry and anxiety are the body’s alarm (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma)
Topics: neurodiversity, anxiety
Cerrillo-Urbina, A. J., García-Hermoso, A., Sánchez-López, M., and colleagues (2015) The effects of physical exercise in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized control trials
Child: Care, Health and Development, 41(6), 779–788 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across eight small trials (249 children with ADHD), exercise, especially aerobic exercise, improved attention, hyperactivity and related symptoms compared with control groups.
Moderate evidence A meta-analysis of small randomized trials.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Movement (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · ADHD (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: ADHD
Cooper, K., Smith, L. G. E., & Russell, A. (2017) Social identity, self-esteem, and mental health in autism
European Journal of Social Psychology, 47(7), 844–854 · a study
In 272 autistic and 267 non-autistic participants, autistic people who identified more strongly with other autistic people had higher self-esteem, which was in turn linked to lower anxiety and depression.
Moderate evidence One cross-sectional survey; links, not proof of cause.
Read more → researchportal.bath.ac.uk
Where this shows up on the site: “Us and them” forms fast (Book: Fitting in) · Finding your people. (Book: Minds that work differently) · Autistic community and identity (Book: Minds that work differently)
Topics: autism, neurodiversity, social identity, belonging
Crompton, C. J., Ropar, D., Evans-Williams, C. V. M., and colleagues (2020) Autistic peer-to-peer information transfer is highly effective
Autism, 24(7), 1704–1712 · a study
In "diffusion chains" where a story was passed along eight people (72 adults), all-autistic chains passed on as much detail as all-non-autistic chains, while mixed chains lost detail faster and reported lower rapport.
Moderate evidence A careful experiment that supports the double empathy idea; modest sample and a single task.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Everyone feels like the one who sees clearly (Book: How we see each other) · Different styles aren’t wrong styles (Book: How communication works) · Fitting in isn’t belonging (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging) · Autism and the double empathy problem (Book: Minds that work differently) · The double empathy problem (Library: Differences in wiring)
Topics: neurodiversity, autism, double empathy
Demetriou, E. A., Lampit, A., Quintana, D. S., et al. (2018) Autism spectrum disorders: A meta-analysis of executive function
Molecular Psychiatry, 23, 1198–1204 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Pooling 235 studies with over 14,000 participants, found that autistic people on average scored lower than non-autistic people across executive function tasks, with wide variation and mixed findings across ages.
Moderate evidence Large meta-analysis of lab tasks, which capture only part of daily life.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Getting things started and finished is a skill of its own. (Book: Minds that work differently) · Executive function in daily life (Book: Minds that work differently) · Living alone when you’re neurodivergent (Guide: Living on your own, living well, in full) · The research behind this page (Guide: The logic behind it)
Topics: autism, neurodiversity, executive function
Donnellan, A. M. (1984) The criterion of the least dangerous assumption
Behavioral Disorders, 9(2), 141–150 · a theory or model
Proposed that when we lack evidence about what someone can understand or do, we should act on the assumption that would do the least harm if wrong, which usually means presuming competence.
An idea, not a test An ethical principle for teaching and support, not a test.
Read more → scholar.google.com
Where this shows up on the site: Non-speaking people and AAC (Book: Minds that work differently)
Topics: autism, aac
Downey, G., & Feldman, S. I. (1996) Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(6), 1327–1343 · a study
Three studies described rejection sensitivity: people who anxiously expect rejection read rejection into ambiguous behaviour, and in new couples this was linked with more relationship difficulty and less partner satisfaction.
Strong evidence A well-established construct with a large later literature.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Rejection sensitivity and RSD (Library: Differences in wiring) · The research behind this page (Guide: The logic behind it)
Topics: neurodiversity, ADHD, rejection sensitivity
Drugs.com (ongoing) Drug interactions between caffeine and Ritalin-SR (methylphenidate)
Drugs.com interaction checker · a guideline or official report
Caffeine and methylphenidate can both raise blood pressure and heart rate, and taking them together may add to these effects.
Moderate evidence A drug-interaction reference used by pharmacists and the public.
Read more → drugs.com
Where this shows up on the site: Less caffeine (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · ADHD (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: ADHD, supplement safety
Dunn, W. (1997) The impact of sensory processing abilities on the daily lives of young children and their families: A conceptual model
Infants & Young Children, 9(4), 23–35 · a theory or model
Proposed a model of sensory processing in which people differ in their neurological thresholds (high or low) and in how they respond (going along with them or acting against them), giving four patterns that affect daily life.
An idea, not a test A widely used clinical model and the basis of the Sensory Profile measures.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Senses, overload and needs (Book: Minds that work differently) · Sensory load and stress (Library: Stress and the body) · Sensory profiles: seekers and avoiders (Library: Differences in wiring) · Sensory sensitivity (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Sensory differences (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: neurodiversity, sensory
Grove, R., Hoekstra, R. A., Wierda, M., & Begeer, S. (2018) Special interests and subjective wellbeing in autistic adults
Autism Research, 11(5), 766–775 · a study
In a survey of autistic adults in the Netherlands Autism Register, about two-thirds reported a special interest; greater motivation for the interest was linked to higher wellbeing, while very high intensity of engagement was linked to lower wellbeing.
Moderate evidence Large survey, cross-sectional and self-report.
Read more → research.vu.nl
Where this shows up on the site: Deep interests are a source of joy and rest. (Book: Minds that work differently) · Special interests and wellbeing (Book: Minds that work differently) · Every trait has gifts and costs (Book: Personality, temperament and change across life) · The research behind this page (Guide: The logic behind it)
Topics: autism, special interests, wellbeing, monotropism
Hollocks, M. J., Lerh, J. W., Magiati, I., and colleagues (2019) Anxiety and depression in adults with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Psychological Medicine, 49(4), 559–572 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Pooling 35 studies, estimated that about 27% of autistic adults had an anxiety disorder at the time (42% over their lifetime) and about 23% had depression (37% lifetime), with wide variation between studies.
Moderate evidence Meta-analysis; very varied methods and many clinical samples.
Read more → ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Worry and anxiety are the body’s alarm (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma) · Doing often comes before feeling better (Book: Worry, low mood and trauma)
Topics: autism, anxiety, depression, neurodiversity
Hull, L., Petrides, K. V., Allison, C., and colleagues (2017) "Putting on my best normal": Social camouflaging in adults with autism spectrum conditions
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(8), 2519–2534 · a study
Interviews with 92 autistic adults described camouflaging as motivated by wanting to fit in and connect, done through masking and compensating techniques, and often followed by exhaustion and threats to self-perception.
Moderate evidence A qualitative study that shaped later measurement work.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Being wired differently is not being wrong (Book: Know yourself) · Stress adds up, like a tank filling (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Fitting in isn’t belonging (Book: Attachment, trust and belonging) · Masking, energy and burnout (Book: Minds that work differently) · Masking and camouflaging (Library: Differences in wiring)
Topics: neurodiversity, autism, masking
Hull, L., Mandy, W., Lai, M.-C., et al. (2019) Development and validation of the Camouflaging Autistic Traits Questionnaire (CAT-Q)
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(3), 819–833 · a study
Developed the 25-item Camouflaging Autistic Traits Questionnaire with 354 autistic and 478 non-autistic adults; it showed three factors, high internal consistency and links with autistic traits, anxiety, depression and wellbeing.
Moderate evidence A widely used self-report measure; published online in 2018, in print in 2019.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Masking and camouflaging (Library: Differences in wiring)
Topics: neurodiversity, autism, masking
Jenkinson, R., Milne, E., & Thompson, A. (2020) The relationship between intolerance of uncertainty and anxiety in autism: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis
Autism, 24(8), 1933–1944 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 10 studies pooled in a meta-analysis (12 reviewed), finding uncertainty hard to bear was strongly linked with anxiety in autistic people (r = 0.62), a link of similar size to that found in non-autistic people.
Moderate evidence A meta-analysis, but of a small number of studies with methodological concerns; correlational.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: The research behind this page (Guide: The logic behind it)
Topics: intolerance of uncertainty, autism, anxiety, change
Kapp, S. K., Steward, R., Crane, L., and colleagues (2019) "People should be allowed to do what they like": Autistic adults' views and experiences of stimming
Autism, 23(7), 1782–1792 · a study
Interviews and focus groups with 32 autistic adults described stimming as a way to regulate overwhelming emotions and sensations, and as something that becomes accepted through understanding; participants objected to efforts to stop harmless stimming.
Moderate evidence A qualitative study centring autistic voices.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Stimming and self-regulation (Library: Differences in wiring) · Stimming helps, so let it be. (Book: Minds that work differently) · Stimming (Book: Minds that work differently) · Letting rip doesn’t empty it (Book: Anger)
Topics: neurodiversity, autism, stimming
Kenny, L., Hattersley, C., Molins, B., and colleagues (2016) Which terms should be used to describe autism? Perspectives from the UK autism community
Autism, 20(4), 442–462 · a study
A survey of 3,470 people in the UK autism community found no single preferred term: "autism" and "on the autism spectrum" were widely endorsed, and "autistic" was favoured by many autistic adults and families but much less by professionals.
Moderate evidence Large survey; preferences differ by group and country and change over time.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Diagnosis, identity and words (Book: Minds that work differently) · Autistic community and identity (Book: Minds that work differently)
Topics: neurodiversity, autism, language
Kildahl, A. N., Helverschou, S. B., Rysstad, A. L., and colleagues (2021) Pathological demand avoidance in children and adolescents: A systematic review
Autism, 25(8), 2162–2176 · a review of research
Reviewing 13 studies, found they nearly all relied on Newson’s original descriptions and mostly on parent reports, seldom considered other explanations such as anxiety, and none asked people with the profile about their own experience.
Moderate evidence Systematic review showing the evidence base is limited.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: When demands feel like a threat. (Book: Minds that work differently) · Demand avoidance, carefully (Book: Minds that work differently)
Topics: autism, neurodiversity, demand avoidance
Leedham, A., Thompson, A. R., Smith, R., & Freeth, M. (2020) ‘I was exhausted trying to figure it out’: The experiences of females receiving an autism diagnosis in middle to late adulthood
Autism, 24(1), 135–146 · a study
Interviews with eleven autistic women diagnosed at 40 or older explored how they made sense of a lifetime of feeling different and how the diagnosis changed their understanding of themselves.
Early evidence Small qualitative (IPA) study.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Finding out later in life. (Book: Minds that work differently) · Diagnosis later in life (Book: Minds that work differently) · People change across life (Book: Personality, temperament and change across life)
Topics: autism, diagnosis, adulthood, women
Millar, D. C., Light, J. C., & Schlosser, R. W. (2006) The impact of augmentative and alternative communication intervention on the speech production of individuals with developmental disabilities: A research review
Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 49(2), 248–264 · a review of research
Across 23 studies (67 people aged 2 to 60), AAC did not hold back speech, and in many cases speech increased, though most studies lacked strong experimental control.
Early evidence Consistent direction, but small studies of limited quality.
Read more → pubs.asha.org
Where this shows up on the site: Not speaking isn’t the same as having nothing to say. (Book: Minds that work differently) · Non-speaking people and AAC (Book: Minds that work differently)
Topics: autism, neurodiversity, aac, communication
Milton, D. E. M. (2012) On the ontological status of autism: The “double empathy problem”
Disability & Society, 27(6), 883–887 · a theory or model
A short conceptual paper arguing that misunderstanding between autistic and non-autistic people runs both ways: each side finds the other hard to read, so the problem lies between them, not only in the autistic person.
An idea, not a test No data in the paper itself; later experiments (e.g. Crompton and colleagues, 2020) support parts of it.
Read more → autism.org.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Bonding without eye contact or small talk (Guide: Bonding) · Nobody has to be wrong (Book: Why we get out of tune) · Being wired differently is not being wrong (Book: Know yourself) · Feelings spread between people (Book: How feelings work) · When two good things pull in different directions (Book: Values, meaning and a good life)
Topics: autism, neurodiversity, communication
Miserandino, C. (2003) The spoon theory
ButYouDontLookSick.com (essay) · a theory or model
A personal essay in which Christine Miserandino, who has lupus, used a handful of spoons to show a friend that each daily task costs some of a limited supply of energy.
An idea, not a test A community metaphor, not a research finding.
Read more → butyoudontlooksick.com
Where this shows up on the site: Your limits make your help last (Book: Helping others well) · Stress depends on what you have to meet it (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · More for your situation (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Limits, safety and when to get more help (Book: Minds that work differently) · Masking, energy and burnout (Book: Minds that work differently)
Topics: energy
Murray, D., Lesser, M., & Lawson, W. (2005) Attention, monotropism and the diagnostic criteria for autism
Autism, 9(2), 139–156 · a theory or model
Proposed "monotropism": autistic attention tends to be pulled strongly into a few interests at a time, and the authors argued this can explain the other diagnostic features of autism.
An idea, not a test An influential, autistic-led account; empirical testing is still limited.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: A good life is more than a good mood (Book: Values, meaning and a good life) · More for your situation (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Rest isn’t one thing (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · You see what you’re looking for (Book: How we see each other) · Habits run on cues (Book: Habits and change)
Topics: neurodiversity, autism, monotropism
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2021) Myalgic encephalomyelitis (or encephalopathy)/chronic fatigue syndrome: diagnosis and management (NG206)
NICE guideline · a guideline or official report
Recommends person-centred energy management (pacing) and says not to offer programmes based on fixed, step-by-step increases in physical activity, such as graded exercise therapy.
Moderate evidence A national guideline; the trial evidence for ME/CFS treatments is limited.
Read more → nice.org.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Movement (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Pacing (energy management) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Chronic illness or low energy (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: energy, burnout
Newson, E., Le Maréchal, K., & David, C. (2003) Pathological demand avoidance syndrome: A necessary distinction within the pervasive developmental disorders
Archives of Disease in Childhood, 88(7), 595–600 · a study
Proposed recognising “pathological demand avoidance” as a separate profile within the autism spectrum, based on 150 cases with an equal sex ratio, describing strong avoidance of everyday demands.
Debated An influential proposal, not included in the main diagnostic manuals.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: When demands feel like a threat. (Book: Minds that work differently) · Demand avoidance, carefully (Book: Minds that work differently)
Topics: autism, neurodiversity, demand avoidance
NHS (National Health Service, England) (ongoing) Side effects of methylphenidate for adults
NHS medicines information (nhs.uk) · a guideline or official report
Common side effects of methylphenidate include trouble sleeping and loss of appetite; taking the last dose more than 6 hours before bed, and taking it with a meal, can help.
Strong evidence Official medicines information.
Read more → nhs.uk
Where this shows up on the site: A regular sleep schedule (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Steady meals (not getting too hungry) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · ADHD (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…)
Topics: ADHD
Pellicano, E., & Burr, D. (2012) When the world becomes ‘too real’: a Bayesian explanation of autistic perception
Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(10), 504–510 · a theory or model
Proposed that autistic perception may lean less on prior expectations (“hypo-priors”) and more on the raw sensory input, which could help explain sensory differences and why an unpredictable world can feel overwhelming.
An idea, not a test An influential predictive-processing account; commentaries question how precisely it is specified, and testing is ongoing.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: The research behind this page (Guide: The logic behind it)
Topics: predictive processing, autism, sensory differences, perception
Pfeiffer, B., Stein Duker, L., Murphy, A., & Shui, C. (2019) Effectiveness of noise-attenuating headphones on physiological responses for children with autism spectrum disorders
Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 13, 65 · a study
In six autistic children, wearing noise-attenuating headphones during the day changed skin-conductance measures of stress compared with baseline.
Early evidence A single-subject design with six children.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Sensory tools (headphones, fidgets, quiet spaces) (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Sensory sensitivity (Guide: Calming supplements, herbs and natural…) · Sensory differences (Guide: Your nervous system, in plain words)
Topics: autism, sensory
Phung, J., Penner, M., Pirlot, C., & Welch, C. (2021) What I wish you knew: Insights on burnout, inertia, meltdown, and shutdown from autistic youth
Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 741421 · a study
Interviews with eight autistic children and young people explored burnout, inertia, meltdown and shutdown as separate experiences, what they feel like, and what others do that helps or makes them worse.
Early evidence Small qualitative study; builds on earlier work with autistic adults.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Meltdowns and shutdowns aren’t choices. (Book: Minds that work differently) · Meltdowns and shutdowns (Book: Minds that work differently) · The research behind this page (Guide: The logic behind it)
Topics: autism, meltdown, shutdown, burnout
Pluess, M., Assary, E., Lionetti, F., and colleagues (2018) Environmental sensitivity in children: Development of the Highly Sensitive Child Scale and identification of sensitivity groups
Developmental Psychology, 54(1), 51–70 · a study
Five studies with 3,581 UK children and adolescents developed the 12-item Highly Sensitive Child Scale and found that children fell into low, medium and high sensitivity groups.
Moderate evidence Large samples; self-report measure for ages 8 and up.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Highly sensitive people (sensory processing sensitivity) (Library: Differences in wiring)
Topics: highly sensitive people, sensory
Raymaker, D. M., Teo, A. R., Steckler, N. A., et al. (2020) "Having all of your internal resources exhausted beyond measure and being left with no clean-up crew": Defining autistic burnout
Autism in Adulthood, 2(2), 132–143 · a study
From 19 interviews and 19 public online accounts, analysed with autistic co-researchers, autistic burnout was defined as long-term exhaustion, loss of function and reduced tolerance to stimulus, arising from chronic life stress and a mismatch between expectations and abilities without enough support.
Early evidence The first formal definition, from a qualitative community-based study; distinct from occupational burnout and depression in participants' accounts.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Look after the hurt part of you (Book: Healing after hurt) · Notice when you’re running on empty (Book: Helping others well) · The ladder: three everyday states (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · Slips are part of change (Book: Habits and change) · Masking, energy and burnout (Book: Minds that work differently)
Topics: neurodiversity, autism, burnout
Sasson, N. J., Faso, D. J., Nugent, J., and colleagues (2017) Neurotypical peers are less willing to interact with those with autism based on thin slice judgments
Scientific Reports, 7, 40700 · a study
Across three studies, non-autistic observers formed less favourable first impressions of autistic children and adults from a few seconds of video, and were less willing to interact with them; the bias disappeared when they judged only transcripts of what was said.
Moderate evidence Three studies with consistent results; suggests style, not substance, drives the bias.
Read more → pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: We judge ourselves by our reasons, and others by their actions (Book: How we see each other) · Autism and the double empathy problem (Book: Minds that work differently) · The double empathy problem (Library: Differences in wiring) · Minds that work differently (Book) · The research behind this page (Guide: The logic behind it)
Topics: neurodiversity, autism, double empathy
Sasson, N. J., & Morrison, K. E. (2019) First impressions of adults with autism improve with diagnostic disclosure and increased autism knowledge of peers
Autism, 23(1), 50–59 · a study
215 observers formed more favourable first impressions of autistic adults when told they were autistic, and observers who knew more about autism rated them more favourably.
Moderate evidence One experiment with short recordings and student raters.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Telling friends and dates is your choice. (Book: Minds that work differently) · Disclosure in friendships and dating (Book: Minds that work differently)
Topics: autism, neurodiversity, disclosure
Shaw, P., Stringaris, A., Nigg, J., & Leibenluft, E. (2014) Emotion dysregulation in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
American Journal of Psychiatry, 171(3), 276-293 · a review of research
A literature review found that trouble regulating emotions (quick, strong feelings that are hard to bring back down) is common in ADHD across the lifespan, with clinic studies of young people putting it at roughly a quarter to a half, and that it adds a lot to the day-to-day difficulty ADHD brings.
Moderate evidence A widely cited review; the estimates come mostly from clinic samples, and how emotion dysregulation fits into ADHD is still debated.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Anger rises in the body fast (Book: Anger) · Stress adds up, like a tank filling (Book: Stress and the nervous system) · The research behind this page (Guide: The logic behind it)
Topics: ADHD, emotions, anger
Weigelt, S., Koldewyn, K., & Kanwisher, N. (2012) Face identity recognition in autism spectrum disorders: A review of behavioral studies
Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(3), 1060–1084 · a review of research
Found that autistic people were, on average, less accurate at recognising and remembering face identity, especially when memory was involved, while processing faces in broadly the same way; whether the difficulty is specific to faces was unclear.
Moderate evidence Review of many behavioural studies; later reviews partly disagree on the details.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Not recognising faces isn’t rudeness. (Book: Minds that work differently) · Face blindness (Book: Minds that work differently)
Topics: autism, neurodiversity, face recognition
Back to the search and topics
Values, meaning and a good life
What matters to people, and how culture and outlook shape it.
Acevedo, B. P., & Aron, A. (2009) Does a long-term relationship kill romantic love?
Review of General Psychology, 13(1), 59–65 · a review of research
Reviewing studies of short- and long-term relationships, the authors concluded that romantic love without obsession can last in long-term relationships and is linked with greater satisfaction and well-being.
Moderate evidence Review and meta-analysis of mostly self-report studies.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Closeness and love: being known, at every age (Book) · Love changes over time (Book: Closeness and love) · Questions people often ask (Book: Closeness and love)
Topics: love, long term relationships, romance
Algoe, S. B., Gable, S. L., & Maisel, N. C. (2010) It's the little things: Everyday gratitude as a booster shot for romantic relationships
Personal Relationships, 17(2), 217–233 · a study
In a daily-diary study of cohabiting couples, feeling gratitude after a partner's thoughtful act predicted greater relationship connection and satisfaction the next day, for both partners.
Moderate evidence Daily diary, correlational.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Gratitude in relationships: find, remind, bind (Library: Kindness and connection) · Feeling understood matters most (Book: Closeness and love)
Topics: gratitude
Aron, A., Melinat, E., Aron, E. N., and colleagues (1997) The experimental generation of interpersonal closeness: A procedure and some preliminary findings
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(4), 363–377 · a study
Pairs of strangers who spent about 45 minutes on gradually deepening self-disclosure tasks (the “36 questions”) felt closer afterwards than pairs given small-talk tasks; matching on attitudes or expecting to like each other made no significant difference.
Moderate evidence Lab studies with students; creates temporary closeness, not lasting relationships.
Read more → ggia.berkeley.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Closeness and love: being known, at every age (Book) · Closeness is built a step at a time (Book: Closeness and love) · Questions people often ask (Book: Closeness and love) · How closeness grows: what research says (Guide: Bonding)
Topics: closeness, self disclosure, love, small talk
Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., Aaker, J. L., & Garbinsky, E. N. (2013) Some key differences between a happy life and a meaningful life
Journal of Positive Psychology, 8(6), 505–516 · a study
In surveys of about 400 adults, happiness and meaningfulness overlapped but differed: good health and an easy life went with happiness but not meaning, while thinking more about the past and future went with more meaning but less happiness.
Moderate evidence Correlational surveys; widely cited.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Meaning comes from ordinary places (Book: Values, meaning and a good life)
Topics: values, meaning
Bleidorn, W., Schwaba, T., Zheng, A., and colleagues (2022) Personality stability and change: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies
Psychological Bulletin, 148(7–8), 588–619 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Who is more or less of a trait compared with others becomes steadier through childhood and levels off by about 25, while average levels keep shifting gently across life, with emotional stability rising most.
Strong evidence A large, recent meta-analysis; it describes averages, not any one person.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Personality, temperament and change across life (Book) · Personality, temperament and change across life (Book)
Topics: personality
Curry, O. S., Rowland, L. A., Van Lissa, C. J., and colleagues (2018) Happy to help? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of performing acts of kindness on the well-being of the actor
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 76, 320–329 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
A meta-analysis of 27 experiments found that performing acts of kindness had a small-to-medium positive effect on the giver's well-being (δ = 0.28).
Moderate evidence The authors noted concerns about study quality and possible publication bias.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Values live in small, everyday acts (Book: Values, meaning and a good life) · Acts of kindness (Library: Kindness and connection)
Topics: values, kindness
Davis, D. E., Choe, E., Meyers, J., and colleagues (2016) Thankful for the little things: A meta-analysis of gratitude interventions
Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63(1), 20–31 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
A meta-analysis found gratitude interventions had small benefits for well-being compared with measurement-only controls and with alternative activities, with mixed results on other outcomes.
Strong evidence Meta-analysis; effects small.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Gratitude (Library: Kindness and connection)
Topics: gratitude
Dickens, L. R. (2017) Using gratitude to promote positive change: A series of meta-analyses investigating the effectiveness of gratitude interventions
Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 39(4), 193–208 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
A series of meta-analyses (38 studies) found gratitude interventions improved outcomes such as happiness compared with neutral conditions, with smaller or no advantages over other positive activities; the author suggested their unique benefits may be overemphasized.
Strong evidence Meta-analysis; effects generally small.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Gratitude (Library: Kindness and connection)
Topics: gratitude
Emmons, R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2003) Counting blessings versus burdens: An experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 377–389 · a study
In three studies, people randomly assigned to list things they were grateful for generally reported higher well-being than comparison groups, though not on every measure; effects on positive mood were the most consistent.
Moderate evidence Classic experiments; later meta-analyses find small average effects.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Gratitude (Library: Kindness and connection)
Topics: gratitude
Erikson, E. H. (1950) Childhood and Society
New York: W. W. Norton (book) · a book
Set out eight stages of life from infancy to old age, each with its own question or tension (for example trust against mistrust in infancy, identity against confusion in adolescence).
An idea, not a test Very influential; a framework for reflection rather than a measured sequence.
Read more → librarything.com
Where this shows up on the site: Each stage of growing up asks its own question (Book: Know yourself) · 4. When something happened matters (Book: Know yourself)
Topics: development, life stages
Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (1999) Acceptance and commitment therapy: An experiential approach to behavior change
Guilford Press · a book
The first main book on acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), which puts chosen values at the centre and teaches making room for difficult feelings while acting on what matters.
Strong evidence For ACT as a whole: meta-analyses find it effective for several problems, comparable to other established therapies.
Read more → contextualscience.org
Where this shows up on the site: Values are directions, not finish lines (Book: Values, meaning and a good life) · Values: what matters most (Library: Motivation, habits and change) · Values, meaning and a good life: what philosophy offers everyday life (Book)
Topics: values, change
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010) The weirdest people in the world?
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33(2–3), 61–83 · a review of research
Showed that most psychology research uses people from Western, educated, industrialised, rich and democratic societies, who are unusual compared with the rest of humanity on many measures, so findings may not generalise.
Strong evidence Wide-ranging review of comparative evidence.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Culture, with care (Book: Fitting in)
Topics: culture, values, research methods
Hofstede, G. (1980) Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values
Sage Publications (Beverly Hills) · a book
From surveys of employees of one multinational company in about 40 countries, described national differences on dimensions including individualism versus collectivism and power distance.
Debated Hugely influential; criticised for treating nations as uniform and for its single-company sample.
Read more → find.library.upenn.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Cultures differ, and so do people inside them. (Book: Fitting in) · Culture, with care (Book: Fitting in)
Topics: culture, values, individualism
Hudson, N. W., & Fraley, R. C. (2015) Volitional personality trait change: Can people choose to change their personality traits?
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(3), 490–507 · a study
In two 16-week studies, people who wanted to change a trait tended to shift a little in that direction, especially when they set concrete plans to act differently.
Moderate evidence Randomized designs, but the changes were small and self-reported.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Personality, temperament and change across life (Book) · Personality, temperament and change across life (Book)
Topics: personality
Janis, I. L. (1972) Victims of Groupthink: A Psychological Study of Foreign-Policy Decisions and Fiascoes
Boston: Houghton Mifflin (book) · a book
Named “groupthink”: in a close-knit group, the wish to agree can crowd out a realistic look at the options. Janis drew on case studies of policy decisions such as the Bay of Pigs invasion, and suggested remedies such as leaders holding back their own view at first and someone being asked to argue the other side.
Mixed evidence An influential idea built on case studies.
Read more → search.worldcat.org
Where this shows up on the site: Disagree kindly, and early (Book: Fitting in)
Topics: groups
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991) Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation
Psychological Review, 98(2), 224–253 · a theory or model
Argued that cultures differ in how they construe the self, as independent or interdependent with others, and that this shapes cognition, emotion and motivation.
Debated Hugely influential; later work questions how neatly cultures fit the two types and notes a heavy reliance on US-East Asian comparisons.
Read more → sites.duke.edu
Where this shows up on the site: Different values aren’t wrong values (Book: Values, meaning and a good life) · Culture, with care (Book: Fitting in)
Topics: values, culture
Martela, F., & Steger, M. F. (2016) The three meanings of meaning in life: Distinguishing coherence, purpose, and significance
Journal of Positive Psychology, 11(5), 531–545 · a theory or model
Proposed that meaning in life has three parts: coherence (life makes sense), purpose (having core goals and direction) and significance (feeling that one's life has value).
An idea, not a test A conceptual paper that has shaped later measurement.
Read more → research.aalto.fi
Where this shows up on the site: Meaning comes from ordinary places (Book: Values, meaning and a good life) · Values, meaning and a good life: what philosophy offers everyday life (Book)
Topics: values, meaning
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T., Jr. (1987) Validation of the five-factor model of personality across instruments and observers
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(1), 81–90 · a study
Ratings of 275 adults by their peers showed the same five broad trait factors found in self-reports, and peers and the people themselves agreed moderately well. This helped establish the “Big Five” as a common map of personality.
Strong evidence A foundational, widely replicated finding; the five factors are a description of how traits cluster, not a full theory of personality.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Personality, temperament and change across life (Book) · Personality, temperament and change across life (Book)
Topics: personality
NHS (ongoing) Prosopagnosia (face blindness)
NHS website (nhs.uk), health A to Z · a guideline or official report
Describes face blindness as difficulty recognising faces, often present from childhood and sometimes running in families; there is no treatment, but strategies such as recognising voices, hair or clothes, and telling people, can help.
Moderate evidence Official health information for the public.
Read more → nhs.uk
Where this shows up on the site: Not recognising faces isn’t rudeness. (Book: Minds that work differently) · Face blindness (Book: Minds that work differently)
Topics: face recognition
Open Science Collaboration (2015) Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science
Science, 349(6251), aac4716 · a study
A large team re-ran 100 published psychology studies with the original materials where they could. 97% of the originals had reported a clear result, but only about a third (36%) of the repeats did, and the effects in the repeats were on average about half the size of the originals.
Strong evidence A large, preregistered, many-lab project; it shows how often single studies fail to repeat, though how to judge a 'successful' repeat is still debated.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: The research behind this site (Guide)
Topics: research literacy, replication
Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002) Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses
Psychological Bulletin, 128(1), 3–72 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Pooling many studies, found individualism–collectivism differences were often smaller and less consistent than assumed: European Americans were not more individualistic than African or Latino Americans, nor less collectivistic than Japanese or Korean participants.
Strong evidence Large meta-analysis; depends on attitude surveys whose cross-cultural meaning is debated.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Cultures differ, and so do people inside them. (Book: Fitting in) · Culture, with care (Book: Fitting in)
Topics: culture, values, individualism
Roberts, B. W., Walton, K. E., & Viechtbauer, W. (2006) Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies
Psychological Bulletin, 132(1), 1–25 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Pooling 92 long-term studies, people on average became more confident in social settings, more conscientious and more emotionally stable, especially between about 20 and 40, and traits kept changing in middle and old age.
Strong evidence A large meta-analysis of longitudinal studies; averages hide big differences between individuals.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Personality, temperament and change across life (Book) · Personality, temperament and change across life (Book)
Topics: personality
Roberts, B. W., Luo, J., Briley, D. A., and colleagues (2017) A systematic review of personality trait change through intervention
Psychological Bulletin, 143(2), 117–141 · a meta-analysis (a study of many studies)
Across 207 studies, personality trait scores changed noticeably during therapy and other interventions over about six months, mostly toward more emotional stability, and the changes lasted in follow-ups.
Moderate evidence Many studies, but most were not randomized and most were clinical samples.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Personality, temperament and change across life (Book) · Personality, temperament and change across life (Book)
Topics: personality
Rotter, J. B. (1966) Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement
Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 80(1), 1–28 · a theory or model
Described individual differences in "locus of control", how far people believe outcomes depend on their own actions rather than outside forces, and introduced a scale to measure it.
Strong evidence A foundational concept with a very large literature.
Read more → pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Where this shows up on the site: Put your effort where it can land (Book: Values, meaning and a good life)
Topics: values, control
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000) Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being
American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78 · a theory or model
Summarised self-determination theory: people are most motivated and well when three basic needs are met: autonomy, competence and relatedness.
Strong evidence One of the best-supported theories of motivation, tested across many settings and cultures.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Start with what matters to you (Book: Know yourself) · Values are directions, not finish lines (Book: Values, meaning and a good life) · Tools and reading on this site (Book: Values, meaning and a good life) · Fixing it for them can take away their power (Book: Helping others well) · Being in two minds is normal (Book: Habits and change)
Topics: values, motivation, self-determination theory
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001) On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being
Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141–166 · a review of research
Reviewed two traditions of well-being research: hedonic (pleasure and the absence of pain) and eudaimonic (meaning, self-realisation and full functioning), and how they diverge and complement each other.
Strong evidence A highly cited review.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: A good life is more than a good mood (Book: Values, meaning and a good life)
Topics: values, meaning
Ryff, C. D. (1989) Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081 · a theory or model
Proposed six dimensions of psychological well-being (self-acceptance, positive relations, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life and personal growth) and tested them with 321 adults, finding that several were not captured by earlier happiness measures.
Strong evidence The basis of the widely used Ryff scales; the six-factor structure is sometimes debated.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: A good life is more than a good mood (Book: Values, meaning and a good life) · Values, meaning and a good life: what philosophy offers everyday life (Book)
Topics: values, meaning
Schwartz, S. H. (1992) Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries
Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 1–65 · a theory or model
Using data from 20 countries, found that the meaning of a set of basic value types was broadly similar across most groups, and that values are organised by two dimensions into a circle of compatible and conflicting motivations.
Strong evidence One of the most cited and replicated models of values.
Read more → cris.huji.ac.il
Where this shows up on the site: When two good things pull in different directions (Book: Values, meaning and a good life) · Different values aren’t wrong values (Book: Values, meaning and a good life) · Your strong feelings point to what you value (Book: Values, meaning and a good life) · Values, meaning and a good life: what philosophy offers everyday life (Book)
Topics: values
Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. (2006) The Meaning in Life Questionnaire: Assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life
Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53(1), 80–93 · a study
Developed the 10-item Meaning in Life Questionnaire, which separately measures the presence of meaning and the search for meaning, and tested its reliability and validity across three studies.
Strong evidence One of the most widely used meaning measures.
Read more → doi.org
Where this shows up on the site: Meaning comes from ordinary places (Book: Values, meaning and a good life) · Values, meaning and a good life: what philosophy offers everyday life (Book)
Topics: values, meaning
Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1977) Temperament and Development
New York: Brunner/Mazel · a book
From the New York Longitudinal Study, which followed children from infancy, the authors described inborn differences in temperament, such as activity, regularity, adaptability and mood, and argued that how well a child’s temperament fits their surroundings matters (“goodness of fit”).
Moderate evidence A classic, influential long-term study; later research refined the temperament dimensions.
Read more → wellcomecollection.org
Where this shows up on the site: Personality, temperament and change across life (Book) · Personality, temperament and change across life (Book)
Topics: personality, temperament
Back to the search and topics
Spotted a mistake? Research moves on, and we would rather be corrected than be wrong. The links above go to the publisher, a library record or a trusted summary, and open in a new tab.